GIT TOT'S 



SLATED MAP DRAWING CARDS, 

DRAWN BY E. SANDOZ, UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 



PROF. ARNOLD GUYOT. 



T> TIT C tt, Sl.OO PER SET 



The complete set (in portfolio) contains: 
1 Map of the HEMISPHERES. 

1 

1 
. 1 

1 

1 

1 

Tin 
latitu 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



bit merely the 
ewly invented 

smooth silicious snface, from which slate-pencil marks can be 
erased with the same facility as from an ordinary slate, thus 
enabling the pupil to redraw on each Map hundreds of times, 
until an accurate and lasting knowledge is obtained of the 
Coast Lines, Boundaries, Rivers, Mountains, Cities, &c. 

For the complete set, without portfolios, - 90cts. 
For any single Map of the set, - - - - 12 cts. 

CHARLES SCRIBNER, 

124 Grand Street, New York. 



Sample sent by mail, prepaid, on receipt of 60 cents. 



A MANUAL 



ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION, 



USE OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND 
NORMAL CLASSES; 

CONTAINING A GRADUATED COURSE OF 

OBJECT LESSONS 



TRAINING THE SENSES AND DEVELOPING THE FACULTIES OF 
CHILDREN. 

BY E. A. SHELDON, 

SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OSWEGO, N. Y. ; 
ASSISTED BY 

MISS M. E. M. JONES AND PROF. H. KRUSI. 



NEW YORK: 
CHARLES SCRIBNER, 124 GRAND STREET. 

1862. 



/)<. 7jL. /?<£<" 



}s 



V 



Entered, Recording to act of Congress, in the year 1S62, by 

CHARLES SCKIBNER, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District 
of New York. 



*- I "* 



.TWIN F. TROW, 
FEINTZR, STEltFOTVrF.n. AND ELECTROTYPER, 

43 & 50 Groeuc Street, 
New York, 






PREFACE. 



For many years there has been a growing convic- 
tion in the minds of the thinking men of this country, 
that our methods of primary instruction are very defec- 
tive, because they are not properly adapted either to the 
mental, moral, or physical conditions of childhood. But 
little reference has hitherto been had to any natural order 
in the development of the faculties, or to the many pe- 
culiar characteristics of children. Memory, by no means 
the most important of the infant faculties, and reason, 
at this age but faintly developed, have been severely 
taxed, while but little direct systematic effort has been 
made to awaken and quicken the perceptive faculties, 
which are the first to develop themselves, and upon the 
proper cultivation of which we must depend for success 
in ail our future educational processes. Even in schools 
where better views have prevailed, the want of some sys- 
tematic exercises, with proper apparatus and facilities for 
putting them into practice, has been strongly felt. 

The design of this work is to meet this demand : 
to present a definite course of elementary instruction 
adapted to philosophic views of the " laws of childhood." 

We do not claim for it originality, either in thought 
or method. It is now a full half century since that dis- 
tinguished educational reformer, Pestalozzi, to a great 



PREFACE. 



extent gave expression and embodiment to the principles 
and methods herein contained. 

Important modifications have however been made ; 
many errors both in principles and practice have been 
eradicated, and we are now able to bring to bear the sug- 
gestions of some of the most distinguished educators in 
Europe, based upon many years of careful study and ex- 
periment. 

The work upon which this is founded, and from which, 
with the kind consent of its authoress, Miss Elizabeth 
Mayo, we have largely drawn, is, as stated in her preface, 
" A Manual, in two volumes, containing the essential 
portions of the five in which alone such help has hitherto 
been attainable ; and this, too, with the addition of much 
valuable matter which is now published for the first 
time." 

This work, entitled " Manual of Elementary Instruc- 
tion," has been compiled within the past year, and 
brings down to us the light and experience of the best 
schools of Europe, where these methods have been longest 
and most thoroughly tested. 

She further says, " The whole work has been care- 
fully reconstructed on a plan which presents principles 
and practice in immediate connection, in order to illus- 
trate their mutual dependence ; all details of practice 
being exhibited as flowing naturally from the first truths 
on which they are founded." 

While the general plan of this work has been followed, 
and some of the lessons adopted with slight changes, a 
large proportion of original matter has been added, and 
the whole arranged with special reference to the wants 
of our American schools. 

The Lessons on Objects, Color, Moral Instruction, 
Lessons on Animals, and the Introduction have been 
made up from the original manuscripts of Miss M. E. 



TOEFACE. 7 

M. Jones, with such exceptions as are indicated, and the 
whole arranged by her. For more than fifteen years this 
lady was engaged in training teachers in these methods 
in the Home and Colonial Training Institution, London, 
and has been connected with the schools of this country 
sufficiently long to understand something of their wants. 

Prof. Hermann Krusi* is the author of the Lessons 
on Form and Inventive Drawing. He has also rewritten 
the fifth and sixth steps in Number. His suggestions on 
many other points have been very valuable. We can but 
congratulate ourselves and those engaged in primary in- 
struction for this timely aid from one so eminently fitted 
for the work.f 

Of the remaining subjects, Heading has been entirely 
rewritten. The Lessons on Place or Geography have been 
slightly changed, introducing two or three original sketches 
of lessons in the first step, and so changing the third step 
as to adapt it to our American locality. Some changes 
have also been made in the Lessons on Sound, Size, 
and Weight ; new matter added, and, in two or three 
instances, substituted for that contained in the old vol- 
umes. 

While these lessons are prepared for primary schools, 
they are also arranged with special reference to use in 

* At present teacher in the Oswego Training School. 

\ Prof. K. was born, as it were, in the very school of Pestalozzi, in which 
Lis father was for twenty years a leading and active teacher. For ten years lie 
was engaged with his father in teaching a government school for the training 
of teachers in Pestalozzian principles, in one of the cantons of Switzerland, his 
native country. After this, he was for six years engaged in the Home and 
Colonial Institution, working out and adapting these methods to the English 
schools ; and it was here that he first brought out the Inventive Drawing. 
In this country he has been for several years engaged in teaching normal 
schools and teachers' institutes. He has studied carefully the characteristics 
of our schools and people ; and is, in every way, abundantly qualified to adapt 
this system to our peculiarities and wants. 



8 PKEFACE. 

ISTormal and Training classes. Model lessons are given, 
and then subjects suggested on which similar lessons may 
be drawn up. The models should be carefully examined 
and analyzed, and, in the case of classes in training, the 
original sketches should in every instance be submitted to 
the criticism of the teacher. By individual teachers, these 
sketches may be written out and used as lessons in their 
schools. In some of the lessons, general directions only 
are given ; in others, these directions are more particular ; 
while many are drawn out at full length, including both 
questions and answers. In any case, they are only de- 
signed as suggestions and models to guide teachers in 
working out their own plans and methods. Teachers 
who confine themselves simply to the lessons presented in 
this book, and to their exact minutiae, can but fail in their 
work. To be truly successful, they must catch the spirit 
and philosophy of the system, and work it out somewhat 
in their own way / of course, always conforming to the 
principles upon which it is based : these we believe to 
be sound and philosophical, and they should never be 
violated. 

The lessons that have been taken with no alteration, 
other than an occasional verbal expression, have been 
indicated either in the index, or in the body of the work 
where they occur, by the letter If. 

It is now more than two years since these methods 
were practically and thoroughly introduced into the Os- 
wego schools, and from a constant and careful observation 
of their working, we feel that we are in some degree 
prepared to judge as to what is wanted in a book of this 
kind for our teachers and schools ; and we trust we may 
not be disappointed in the hope that it will meet these 
wants. 

The subjects are arranged into steps, simply with refer- 
ence to the order of time in which it is thought various 



PREFACE. 



portions of the work may be accomplished. All first-step 
lessons are designed for children from four to five years 
of age, or during the first year of their school life. In the 
same way the second step is designed for the second year, 
and the third step for the third year ; thus covering the 
time usually allotted to our primary departments in 
towns where the schools are graded. In some instances 
a fourth step is added, which is designed for the next grade. 
The order of succession in which the various subjects are 
arranged, has no reference to any order in which it may 
be supposed they should be taken up. While it is the de- 
sign that the lessons of each step, in every subject, shall 
be taken up at the same stage of the child's development, 
it is not expected that they will all be treated simulta- 
neously. From three to five only are taken at once, and 
these are carried on until the interest of the children be- 
gins to flag, when they are changed for other subjects, 
which in their turn are to be changed, as the children 
weary, for others still, until we again return to the first 
course, to resume it, after a rapid review, where we left it. 
This necessity for change with little children cannot be 
too carefully observed ; for no matter how interesting the 
subject is at first, they will in time tire of it ; and a lively 
interest can only be maintained by change. Reading, 
spelling, and number are the only subjects that are 
constant. With the youngest children the programme 
should change fortnightly, and with the older ones month- 
ly. In the Appendix may be seen some programmes of 
the Oswego schools, which will give a very good idea of 
the way in which these may be arranged. 

In the country schools, where no such gradation and 
classification are possible, where the teachers find it im- 
practicable to take up all the topics, as they usually will, 
they must confine themselves to those which seem to them 
of the most practical importance ; as, for instance, Moral 
1* 



10 PREFACE. 

Instruction, Eeading, Geography, Number, Language, 
Form, Color, and Size. 

Others might make a different selection of subjects : 
we only call attention to this, by way of expressing our 
view of the importance of doing well and thoroughly 
whatever is undertaken. It may seem difficult to make a 
selection of subjects where all are important ; but it is 
better to leave half of them untouched than to undertake 
to do all, and do nothing as it should be done. Whatever 
is taught, let it be taught with reference to correct prin- 
ciples. 

E. A. Sheldon. 

Oswego, Aug. 25, 1862. 



CONTENTS 





PAGE 


INTRODUCTION, 


. 13 


Necessity of Training, .... 


13 


Pestalozzian Plans and Principles, . 


. 14 


Preparation of Sketches, 


16 


Criticism Lessons, ..... 


. 24 


Reports of Model Lessons, . . . 


40 


Miscellaneous Exercises, .... 


. 42 


COLOR, 


45 


FORM, '. 


. 62 


OBJECTS, 


86 


NUMBER, 


. 13S 


SIZE, 


200 


WEIGHT, 


. 208 


SOUND, 


212 


LANGUAGE (M.), 


. 219 


READING, 


231 


DICTATION (M.), 


. 258 


GEOGRAPHY, 


263 


LESSONS ON THE HUMAN BODY (M.), . 


. 292 


LESSONS ON ANIMALS, 


310 


LESSONS ON PLANTS (M.), 


. 359 


MORAL INSTRUCTION 


884 


DRAWING, 


. 419 



MANUAL 

OF 

ELEMENTAEY I^STKTJCTIOK 



INTRODUCTION. 

I.— NECESSITY OF TRAINING. 

II.— PESTALOZZIAN PLANS AND PRINCIPLES. 
III.— PREPARATION OP SKETCHES. 
IV.— CRITICISM LESSONS. 

V.— REPORTS OF MODEL LESSONS. 
VI.-MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN METHOD. 



I.— Necessity of Training. 

"Were we to undertake to discuss the importance of a regular 
apprenticeship to the mechanic who builds houses or makes ma- 
chines, or of a professional education to the artist, the lawyer, or 
the physician, we should expose ourselves to public ridicule. It 
is too self-evident to admit of sober discussion. All regard it a 
necessity. And even when a thorough professional education has 
been obtained, or a complete term of service as apprentice served, 
we are slow to employ them until their success has been tested by 
long experience. "We are slow to trust the setting of a broken 
bone to one who has not given practical demonstrations of his 
skill. And yet these things are important only in a physical 
sense — the lowest of all human wants and necessities. Hoav 
much more, then, would it seem important that those to whom 
Ave intrust the moral and intellectual destiny of the race should 
be carefully educated and prepared with special reference to their 
work ! 

It would seem too obvious to require an argument, that every 



14 INTRODUCTION. 

teacher should clearly comprehend the character of the infant 
mind, and its mode of operation — the way in which each faculty 
stands related to the other, and the order of its evolution — as also 
the related order of appliances in the process of development, to- 
gether with a knowledge of the many striking pecidiarities and 
characteristics of children. It is clear that, without this knowl- 
edge, teachers go blindly at their work, and can but fall into 
many and grievous errors. One thing is certain, that with the 
principles and methods here discussed, no one can hope to succeed 
who does not carefully study and intelligently practise them. 



II — Pestalozzian Plans and Principles. 

There are several different ways of giving a lesson. 

Example. — Six ways of giving a Lesson on a Plant. 

1. Account of the plant learned by children from a book, and 
repeated to the teacher. 

2. Description learned and repeated as before, teacher after- 
ward explaining the meaning. 

3. Piece first explained by the teacher, then learned by the 
children, and repeated. 

4. Picture shown — parts pointed out by teacher. Description 
learned, and repeated as before. 

5. Specimens given — parts examined first by teacher, then 
observed by the children. 

6. Specimens distributed — parts found out by the children, 
who frame a description, which is put on the board and committed 
to memory. 

Again, since all lessons should be given in accordance with 
correct philosophical principles, we subjoin the following, as laid 
down by Pestalozzi : 

1 . Activity is a law of childhood. Accustom the child to do — 
educate the hand. 



PESTALOZZIAN PLANS AND PRINCIPLES. 15 

2. Cultivate the faculties in their natural order — first form the 
mind, then furnish it. 

3. Begin with the senses, and never tell a child what he can 
discover for himself. 

4. Eeduce every subject to its elements — one difficulty at a 
time is enough for a child. 

5. Proceed step by step. Be thorough. The measure of in- 
formation is not what the teacher can give, but what the child can 
receive. 

6. Let every lesson have a point. (Except in junior schools, 
when more than one lesson is required before the point is reached, 
each successively tending toward it.) 

7. Develop the idea — then give the term — cultivate language. 

8. Proceed from the known to the unknown — from the par- 
ticular to the general — from the concrete to the abstract — from 
the simple to the more difficult. 

9. First synthesis, then analysis — not the order of the subject, 
but the order of nature. 

Of course, the educational teacher, in addressing a class of stu- 
dents, would explain and illustrate these principles. In order to 
ascertain whether they are thoroughly comprehended, the follow- 
ing questions may be put. Answers should be given in writing. 

Questions. 

1. A teacher begins Arithmetic by teaching a child to count 
orally, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. "What principle is violated? 

2. A teacher teaches multiplication by letting the children 
sing the tables. "What principle is violated ? 

3. Begins Geography by use of globes, pointing out conti- 
nents, &c. What principle is violated ? 

4. Begins Natural History by taking the children into a mu- 
seum where there are specimens of all kinds, and making a classi- 
fication. What principle is violated ? 

5. To develop an idea, begins with the definition ; " Children, 
I am going to teach you something : ' All things through which 



lb INTRODUCTION. 

we can see clearly are transparent.' Look at this piece of glass." 
What principle is violated ? 

6. Having developed* ^*n idea, omits to give the term or put 
it on the board. What principle is violated ? 

7. Gives a lesson on coal, without presenting the object. 
What principle is' violated? 

8. Gives a lesson without observing any divisions either by 
S. R. (simultaneous repetition), or by W. B. (writing on the board). 
What principle is violated ? 

9. Teaches Reading by the name method. What principle is 
violated ? 

10. Adopts a uniform plan in her lessons, so that the children 
always know in what order a subject will be represented. What 
principle is violated ? 

11. Tells the children that water is a liquid, and then shows 
what a liquid is. What principle is violated ? 

12. Gives a lesson on position and distance, always measuring 
and representing the object herself. What principle is violated ? 

13. Gives a lesson on the lion, before the children have had 
one on the cat. What principle is violated ? 

14. A lesson on perching birds as an order, before any have 
been given on the robin, canary, and other individuals. What 
principle is violated ? 

15. Teacher, giving lesson on a tiger, refers to cat — lets one 
child talk of the cat at home, another of the dog, a third of the 
horse, a fourth of riding the horse to town. What principle is 
violated ? 

16. Undertakes to give lessons on the parts of speech to chil 
dren who have had no lessons on objects. What principle is 
violated ? 

III.— Preparation of Sketches. 

Too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of prepar- 
ing notes or sketches in writing. It is not too much to say that 
no lesson ought to be given, a sketch of which has not been sys- 
tematically prepared. In training students to this work it is found 



PREPARATION OF SKETCHES. 17 

desirable to begin with an examination and analysis of a few sim- 
ple lessons. 

i 
First Example. — Sketch on Water. 

(See " Objects" Second Step.) 
Directions for Analysis. 

1. Matter to be separated from method. 

2. Point to be found, whether definitely stated, or contained in 
the title, or in the head. 

3. Terms and information given to be distinguished from ideas 
developed. 

4. Ideas developed, whether 

(a) by addressing the senses directly. 

(b) by comparison. 

(c) by experiment. 

(d) by addressing the reason. 

5. Illustration — Use of Board — S. R. — Ellipses — Kind of 
Summary. 

The analysis of water as made by students should appear 
thus : 

1. Matter. See Summary. 

2. Point is contained in the heads, which are — 

General qualities. 

Uses, and special qualities on which uses depend. 

3. Terms given — liquid and bright ; information given — every 
country is well supplied with water. 

4. Ideas developed : 

(a) "Water is bright — has neither taste nor smell. 

(b) Water is a liquid — has no color — can be seen through. 

(c) Water is useful for washing and drinking. (Memory.) 

(d) Water is used for washing, on account of the absence 

of color and smell. 

5. Illustrations — Ellipses and S. R. — Summary elliptical. 



18 INTRODUCTION. 



Second Example. — Lesson on Writing Paper. 

"What is this ? Paper. Whence do we get paper ? Docs it 
grow upon any plant ? Does it come from off any animal ? Do 
we dig it out of the ground ? How do we get it then ? It is 
made. Yes, it is made hy man : but did man make it out of noth- 
ing ? No ; he must have something to make it from. Do you 
know of what paper is made ? It is made of rags. Yes, the best 
paper is made of linen rags. Of what is linen made ? Do you 
not know ? It is made from the fibrous stem of a very pretty 
plant. Here is a picture of it; it is called flax., Eepeat together, 
" Paper is made of rags ; the finest paper is made of linen rags ; 
linen is made from the fibrous stem of a plant called flax." Now, 
children, look at the paper, and tell me what you observe about it. 
It is white. This paper is white, but what is this ? Blue. And 
this ? Brown. What kind of paper is white ? Writing paper. 
Try and find out why writing paper is made white. That we may 
see the writing upon it. Look at it and feel it. It is smooth. 
Put it between your thumb and finger. It is thin. Try again. 
It is light. Eepeat together these qualities, " Writing paper is 
smooth, thin, and light." Now hold it toward the window. We 
can see through it. Can you see through it as well as you do 
through glass ? What is the difference ? W r e can see everything 
quite clearly through the glass ; but through paper we only see the 
dim light. What did we say of glass ? That it is transparent ; 
but we say of objects through which we can see light only, that 
they are translucent What can we say of paper ? It is translu- 
cent. Try what you can do with paper. We can tear it. What 
more ? W r e can bend it and fold it. Yes ; on account of this 
quality it is said to be pliable. Repeat together, " Paper is easily 
torn : it can be easily bent and folded : it is ^>//a£Ze." See, I have 
put a part of this sheet of paper into the fire. It burns. It is in- 
flammable. Why do we call paper inflammable ? Because it 
burns readily. Tell me some other things that are inflammable. 
Wood, coal, &c. Of what use is this kind of paper ? To write 
upon. Yes ; and when you are grown up, and perhaps have to 



PREPARATION OF SKETCHES. 19 

live very far away from your father and mother and brothers, Low 
pleasant you will think it to receive a sheet of paper folded up, 
and brought to you by the postman, to tell you how they all are, 
and how they are getting on ! What is such folded-up sheet of 
paper called ? Yes, a letter. How glad you will then be, that 
when you were young you went to school, and learnt to read, so 
that you can understand what is written in the letter brought by 
the postman. 

After you have told me all you have found out about writing 
paper, and sung a hymn, I will tell you a true little history about 
writing. Now all repeat together, " Writing paper is made of 
linen rags ; linen is made from the fibrous stem of a plant called 
flax : writing paper is white, translucent, and ^Zia&Ze; it is smooth, 
tJtin, light, and easily tor n ; it is injlammahle ; and it is useful to 
write upon. v 

After learning to spell any new words met with in the lesson, 
the children repeat the hymn — 

" I thank the goodness and the grace," &c. 

Now I will give you the little history I promised. It relates 
to one of those countries in which they worship idols of wood and 
stone, and where the people do not know God and Jesus Christ. 
The Lord put it into the heart of a very good man in England, 
Mr. Williams, to go over and teach these poor ignorant people 
how they might be saved and go to heaven. How do the Scrip- 
tures say that we can be saved ? This good man had to cross the 
sea, in order to get at this country. How did he manage this? 
Yes ; he went in a ship, and when he arrived at the country 
where the people did not know God and Jesus Christ, he began 
to teach them a great many things ; he was very kind to them, 
and showed them how to build neat little cottages, and places 
where they might learn about God ; and he made a ship that 
would sail upon the water. One day he was working very hard 
among them, when he found that he had left a tool at home of 
which he was in need ; so he called one of the men, and taking up 
a chip of wood, wrote upon it the name of the tool he wanted, and 
desired the man to take it to his wife, and that she would give 



20 INTRODUCTION. 

him something to bring back "with him. The man looked aston- 
ished, and waited for a message. " Go quickly," said Mr. Wil- 
liams ; " I am in haste ; show this to my wife, that is all." 

Now the poor man, though he was a great man in that country, 
knew nothing about reading or writing, and as he went he thought, 
How silly it is to take this piece of wood to show. However, he 
did as he was bid ; he was obedient. How great was his surprise 
when he had given the chip to Mrs. Williams, to see her look at 
it and immediately fetch the instrument. " But how do you 
know," said he, "that this is what Mr. Williams sent me for?" 
" You brought me a chip of wood," said Mrs. Williams, " and 
that informed me what I was to give you ; you have now only to 
go back quickly with it." He did so, saying to himself as he re- 
turned, What a wonderful people these Englishmen are ; they can 
make even a chip of wood speak ! Now, when this chief saw how 
much more than he or any of his people this kind missionary 
knew, he became willing that he should teach them about God and 
Jesus Christ. 

You see, dear children, how much happier we are than these 
poor ignorant people. Who gave us our many blessings ? God. 
Yes ; He it is who made you happy English children. What 
should you do ? Praise Him. Is it enough to praise Him with 
your lips ? No. How, then, should you praise Him ? We 
should praise Him with our hearts. Yes ; but when you were 
singing that pretty little hymn of praise, I did not see you look as 
if you were really thanking God in your hearts. When a kind 
person has given you something, I have heard you thank them, 
and in such a manner, too, that I am sure you felt they had been 
kind to you. Now I should like to hear you thank God as if 
you indeed felt all that kindness which He is ever pouring out 
upon you. 

The analysis of writing paper, as made by the students, should 
appear thus : 

1. Matter of the lesson. Paper is artificial. Writing paper is 
made of linen rags ; linen is made of the stem of a plant called flax. 
Writing paper is white, translucent, thin, light ; will tear easily ; 
can be bent and folded ; is inflammable ; and is useful to write upon. 



PBEPAfiATION OF SKETCHES. 21 

2. Point is contained in the heads, which are — nature, qualities, 
and uses of writing paper. 

3. Terms given : pliable, translucent, flax ; information given 
— that paper is made from rags (by children) — that linen is made 
from the stem of the flax plant, and the anecdote (by teacher). 

4. Ideas developed: 

(a) white, smooth, thin, light. 

(b) translucent ; paper is of different colors, though writing 

paper is usually white. 

(c) it will bend easily ; pliable ; it is easily torn ; inflam- 

mable. 

(d) that we may see to write on it, it is white ; it is 

made by man ; artificial, but made of something that 
only God can make, and for which we must thank 
Him. Application made : the advantage of learning 
to write. 

5. Illustrations. Picture of flax plant shown, and anecdote 
told. Mechanical plans — Hands out. — Ellipses — S. R. — Elliptical 
summary. 

The students may next draw up notes on parchment as writing 
paper. 

Third Example. 

I. Matter. Parchment is an animal substance, and it is arti- 
ficial, being the prepared skin of a sheep. It is yellowish, stiff, 
thick, tough, odorous, translucent. It frizzles when burning. It 
is durable, and therefore used to write on when the writing is to 
be preserved. 

II. Point. Nature ; qualities ; use, and quality on which use 
depends. 

III. Terms given : parchment, and refer to " Ideas Developed" 
and supply any terms with which they are unacquainted. Infor- 
mation given : parchment is the dried skin of a sheep ; it is used 
to write upon when the writing is to be preserved. 

IV. Ideas developed: 

(a) Yellowish white, thin, smooth, odorous. 

(b) Stiff, translucent. 



22 IIsTKODUCTION. 

(c) Flexible, tough, frizzles when burning. 

(d) Animal substance, artificial, durable. 

/. Illustrations. Qualities written on the board (S. E.). 
Story told. — Verse given. — Summary read from the board. 

It is to be observed that the preparation so often referred to 
consists in drawing up sketches of lessons, not in fully writing out 
lessons. A report of a full lesson on parchment would appear 
thus : 

Report of Lesson on Parchment as Paper. Do you know what 
this is ? It is paper. It is like paper. Here is a piece of paper ; 
see if you can find a difference between this and that. The paper is 
white, and this is yellow. Is it very yellow ? It is rather yellow. 
Say it is yellowish. What did we find out in the last lesson about 
the color of paper ? That it may be of different colors. Then pa- 
per may be yellow. I will help you to find out the real difference. 
What is paper made from ? Linen rags. Whence come the 
linen rags ? From the flax plant. But this was never a part of 
any vegetable ; it is the dried skin of a sheep. Does the skin of 
a sheep look like this ? No. What is the difference ? The skin 
of the sheep is woolly. What has been done to it ? The wool 
has been taken off. Yes, and it has been cleaned and smoothed. 
Who made the skin into parchment ? Man. What do we say 
of things made by man ? They are artificial. The dried skin of a 
sheep is called parchment. I will write on the board the qualities 
we have discovered : 

Parchment is an animal substance. 

" " artificial. 

" " yellowish white. 

Now feel the parchment and the paper. The parchment is 
thicker than the paper. See what you can do with them. We 
can fold them up. Which folds the more easily ? The paper. 
Yes, the parchment is stiff. Do you know anything else that is 
stiff? Cards, a pen. Repeat together (R. T.). Things that 
will not bend nor fold easily are stiff (W. B.). Try once again. 
We can tear the paper, but we cannot tear the parchment (R. T.). 
Parchment is tough. Do you know anything else tough ? India- 



PREPARATION OF SKETCHES. 23 

rubber (R. T.). Things that will not tear easily are tough (W.B.). 
See, I have put it into the fire ; it frizzles. But when I put the 
paper into the fire it burns up with a flame. Think of other things 
that burn with a flame. Wood, rags. What is paper made from? 
Rao-s. And rags come from the flax plant. What does wood 
come from ? Trees. Give me another name for plants and trees. 
Vegetables. Try and remember what I tell you. All things that 
burn with a flame come from vegetables (R. T.). But how does 
the parchment burn ? It frizzles. Name other things that frizzle. 
Hair, a bone. What do bones come from ? Animals. Hair ? 
Animals. Parchment itself is the skin of an animal. What can you 
find out from all this ? That things that frizzle come from animals 
(W. B.). What use can we make of this ? It will do to write on. 
It is used to write on. Can you tell me why we use it, when we 
have plenty of paper ? Shall I help you to find out ? Which 
can you destroy more easily ; which will last longer — paper or 
parchment ? And why ? Because it is tough. Now, if you were 
writing a note, which would be torn up after it was read, what 
would do to write your note upon ? Paper. But when people 
want their writing to last for years and years, they write on parch- 
ment. The laws of the land are written on parchment. Now, if 
you answer well, I will tell you a story about this, after we have 
gone over what is written on the board (R. T.). 

Once on a time there lived a queen in England, not like the 
present queen, who is kind and good to all. The former queen 
was ignorant, harsh, and cruel. There were good people in the 
country, who loved to read their Bibles and to learn; but there 
were wicked people, who tried to prevent them from doing this, 
and they and the queen made a law that whoever read the Bible 
and worshipped God, as we are told to do, should be burned 
to death. Now this queen had a servant who was a clever man. 
He knew that such a wicked, unjust law would not last : Gou 
would not let it. So they came to him about writing out this law, 
and said, Shall it be written out on parchment or on paper ? He 
answered, Take paper ; for the poorest paper will last longer than 
the law. And so it proved ; for the poor, mistaken queen died, 



24 INTRODUCTION. 

and then the people could read and pray in peace. There is a 
hymn about this, beginning — 

I took the sacred Book of God, 

To keep, to fear, to read it free ; 
But holy martyrs shed their blood 

To win this word of life for me. 

Now, what more have I to add to what is written on the 
board ? The Uses of Parchment. 



IV. Criticism Lessons. 

Many of the lessons given by the students are called criticism 
lessons. They are given in the presence of the members of the 
class, who express opinions on the various points of the lesson ; 
enumerating those in which they think the teacher has succeeded, 
and those in which they think she has failed. To conduct a criti- 
cism properly, it is necessary that there should be a presiding 
critic, whose opinion is final. The following are the points of 
criticism which are given as a guide to the class : 

Points of Criticism. 
I. Matter. 

1. "Whether suitable to children ; whether exercising observa- 
tion, conception, reason, or all these. 

2. Lesson — whether bearing on one point ; into what heads 
divided. 

3. "Whether, in a Scripture or moral lesson, an application be 
made ; whether the right one. In a lesson on an animal, whether 
the children be led to see the wisdom and goodness of God in the 
adaptation of parts to mode of life, and whether humane feelings 
be cultivated. 

II. Method. 

1. Whether the teacher clearly apprehends the distinction be- 
tween what must be told and what must be given. 



CKITICISM LESSONS. 25 

2. "Whether she distinguishes the various mental faculties one 
from another ; knows which should be, and how exercised. 

3. "Whether good illustrations are used ; the specimens large 
enough and sufficient for distribution; whether diagrams were 
drawn when required. 

4. Whether appropriate questions were used when general 
answers are wanted. Leading questions only to obtain an admis- 
sion, on which another question is based. 

5. Whether the board was sufficiently used — new terms writ- 
ten on it ; also titles and heads of lessons ; also, with elder chil- 
dren, definitions and statements. 

6. Summary, of what kind ; whether of the kind most appro- 
priate to the children and the lesson. 

7. Whether proper use was made of Hands Out and S. R. 

III. Teacher. 

1. Whether capable, of swaying class according to her will — 
of awakening sympathy, including the sympathy of numbers. 

2. Whether attending to all, or carrying on the lesson with a 
few forward children ; whether taking the right standing point. 

3. Manner — whether appropriate — bustling and excited — slow 
and languid — cheerful and energetic ; whether, if a Scriptural 
lesson, reverential tone of voice. 

4. Language — whether appropriate ; syntax and correct pro- 
nunciation. 

IV. Children. 

1. Whether respectful, attentive ; whether interested ; if so, 
to what interest is owing. 

2. Whether likely to carry the lesson away as a whole ; if a 
Scripture or moral lesson, whether their hearts were touched. 

As a clear illustration of the design and method of conducting 
these lessons, we subjoin the following remarks and sketch, taken 
from a paper issued by the Home and Colonial Institution of 
London : — 

Two principal objects are always kept in view in training 
teachers — the first, to make them acquainted with the principles 
2 



26 INTRODUCTION. 

of education, as founded on the nature of children ; the second, to 
initiate them in the art of teaching. One of the most successful 
plans for accomplishing the latter point has been that of the teach- 
ers giving a gallery lesson, before a class of the students, who 
criticize the matter and manner of the lesson, according to certain 
rides with which they have been previously made acquainted ; these 
criticisms being summed up and commented upon by the head 
master or mistress. This plan acts as a strong stimulus to exer- 
tion ; it gives the head master the opportunity of bringing out 
the principles of education, and applying them practically ; and 
at the same time it tends to produce that self-possession so neces- 
sary to every teacher of young children. 

The following is a specimen of what is called a Criticism Les- 
son, a sketch of which the teacher first prepares ; in fact, with a 
few alterations, it is the report of one actually given at the Model 
Infant School of the Home and Colonial Institution : — 



SKETCH OF A LESSON ON THE BAT. CHILDREN FROM FIVE TO 

SEVEN. 

The children will be required to observe : — 

I. The peculiar organization of the hat. It has a body like 
that of the mouse, and wings like a bird, the latter formed by 
the bones being extended and the skin stretched between them, 
the ears extremely long ; small, sharp-pointed teeth ; five claws 
on the hind feet, somewhat like fingers and a thumb. It is also 
provided with hooks on its wings. 

II. Its habits. The bat, when seeking its food, which con- 
sists of insects and small birds, flies like a bird, but always in the 
dim twilight. As its eyes are dazzled by glaring light, it remains 
during the day in old barns or houses, and suspends itself by it's 
hind legs. In winter it falls asleep. 

III. Adaptation of the organs to the habits and p7-opcnsities 
of the bat. The wings and expansion of skin enable it to fly, and 
thus to get its food. As its prey comes out at night, it has acute 
feeling to guide it, instead of good sight, which would not have 
been so useful. It cannot rest on its legs, but is able, by means 



CRITICISM LESSONS. 27 

of hooks and claws, to suspend itself, with its head downward, 
and so get rest. Its food fails in winter ; it then falls into a 
sleep, and requires none. 

IV. Application. Lead the children to trace the hand of 
God in all this. If we see any thing beautifully fitted for some 
purpose, we conclude it was made for that purpose. God's wis- 
dom, benevolence, and power to be shown in the adaptation of 
all the parts of the animal to its habits. 

LESSON TO BE CRITICISED. 

Teacher. "What animal is this ? {Shoxoincj it.) 

Children. A bat. 

T. Look at it, and tell me something about it. "What do you 
see peculiar in it ? 

A little girl. I do not know what " peculiar" means. 

T. Can any one tell her ? (A pause.) 

Another child. It means something that you see in one kind 
of thing, but not in anything else. 

T. Well, that will do. What, then, do you see peculiar in 
the bat ? 

Several. It has wings and hands. 

T. What have you at the end of your own arms ? 

C. Hands. 

T. And what have you on your hands ? 

C. Fingers. 

T. How many fingers have you on each hand ? 

All. Four, and a thumb. 

T. Do you see anything in this bat that looks like four fingers 
and a thumb ? 

A little girl counted them, and said there were four bones that 
looked like fingers. 

T. Can you tell me the difference between these bones and 
our fingers ? 

A little hoy. They have no flesh on them, and they are very 
long. 

T. What other difference do you see ? 



28 INTRODUCTION. 

Some of the children said it had a web, others that it had a 
skin between the fingers. 

T. Where does this skin appear to come from ? 

C. From the back. 

T. And what does it do ? 

C. It stretches over the fingers. 

T. What has the bat beside four fingers ? 

C. It has a thumb. 

T. What does this thumb look like ? 

C. Like a claw. 

T. But what kind of claw ? 

C. It looks like a hook. 

T. {to an active-looking but idle little boy). Now, little boy, 
I am quite sure you can tell me something about this bat. 

Boy. It has teeth. 

T. What kind of teeth has it ? 

Several. Sharp teeth. 

T. What kind of mouth has it ? 

Two or three children. It looks like a beak. 

T. Would you call this a beak ? What creatures have beaks ? 

C. Birds. 

T. Well, would you call this a bird ? 

C. No ; it is a beast. 

T. What kind of ears has it ? 

Some of the children said, They are large. 

T. Can you tell me anything about the bat's sleeping ? 

A little girl. It sleeps in the day, and flies about in the twi- 
light. 

T. Where does it sleep ? 

A boy. In a hole. 

A girl. It hangs on high walls. 

A boy. It hangs on trees. 

T. Yes ; they hang on trees, also on the walls of old houses, 
where nobody can live because they are so old ; there they sleep 
all day. Do you know what they hang by ? 

C. By their feet. 

T. If they hang by their feet, what position are they in ? 



CRITICISM LESSONS. 29 

C. Their heads are downward. 

T. You have told me where the bat lives, and what it does by 
day ; now tell me what it does when night comes on. 

C. It goes about. 

T. How does it go ? 

C. It flies. 

T. Why can it not walk ? 

C. Because its legs would not bear it ; they are very weak. 

T. Then must it not be a very awkward animal ? 

C. No ; because it has wings and a hook instead. 

T. Now tell me what its body looks like. 

C. Like a mouse. 

T. Have you ever seen a mouse like this animal ? 

C. No ; it has a skin stretched over its fingers, and a mouse 
has not ; a mouse has four legs. 

T. And what does this skin stretched over its fingers make ? 

C. Wings. 

T. By what means does it fly ? 

C. By its wings. 

T. Why does it fly about ? 

C. To get its food. 

T. What is its food ? 

C. Insects. 

T. And anything else ? 

A boy. Worms. 

T. I don't think it eats worms, but I am not quite sure ; how- 
ever, I know it eats little birds. When does it come out ? 

C. In the twilight. 

T. What do you mean by twilight ? 

A girl. Night. A boy. Evening ; between day and night. ' 
when it is not quite dark. 

T. What time do the insects come out ? 

C. At the same time that the bat comes out. 

T. When it comes out at the twilight, can it see the insects ? 

C. Yes ; because it has very sharp eyes. 

T. No ; you have guessed this. Look at its eyes ; bats have 
not sharp eyes ; they cannot see their food plainly, because their 



30 INTRODUCTION. 

eyes are very small. Then, how is it they can catch their 
food? 

Some of the children. They have little nerves. 

A little boy. The food comes upon its wings. 

The Head Master [speaking to the teacher). I do not think 
the children all understand how the bat catches its food ; be so 
good as to repeat the questions. 

T. Tell me how it catches its food. 

A hoy. The food comes upon its wings. 

T. I will tell you : when the insect flies upon the wings of the 
bat, it shuts them up very quickly, and turns its mouth around 
sharply and catches it. What, then, is one of the uses of the 
wings of the bat ? 

Several. To get its food. 

T. "Why does it need its wings to get its food ? 

C. Because there is very little light, and it cannot see plainly. 

T. And what are the hooks for ? 

C. For the bat to hang on the wall. 

T. There is something else about the bat that you do not 
know, I think. Shall I tell you ? It goes to sleep all the winter. 
Why should it sleep all the winter ? 

C. Because no insects come out. 

T. What would become of it if there were no insects ? 

C. It would starve. 

T. Now tell me again, what is the use of the wings to the 
bat? 

C. To fly with, and to catch its food. 

The teacher repeated all the questions on this point. 

To the question, why the bat could not find its prey without 
its wings, a little girl replied, "Because its eyes is dull" — a fault 
in grammar which the teacher required the children to correct. 

T. What is the use of its claws ? 

C. To hang on the walls. 

T. When does it hang on the walls ? 

C. In the day. 

T. If this large body [pointing to the body of the bat) were 
to walk on the ground, what would become of its delicate legs ? 



CRITICISM LESSONS. 31 

C. They would break. 

T. And what would happen to the wings ? 

A little girl. They would break too. 

T. Is " break" the word to use? 

A hoy. They would be torn. 

T. Now attend to what I am going to ask you, and speak 
quietly : Who gave the bat these wings ? 

The children replied in a low tone of voice, " God;' 

T. What did he give the bat wings for ? 

C. To fly in the air. 

T. And when you see this bat has wings, what are you sure 
it was made for ? 

C. To fly in the air. 

T. If it looked like a mouse, and if it had not these wings, 
what would you think it was made for ? 

C. To walk like a mouse. 

T. And suppose it had not these wingk, what sort of eyes 
would it most likely have ? 

C. Sharp eyes. 

T. When we see that God has given the bat these wings, 
what are we quite sure he has made it for ? 

C. To fly in the air. 

T. What does this show you of God ? 

C. It shows us his power and wisdom. 

T. Wisdom in what ? 

C. In giving the bat wings to fly. 

T. How does that show his wisdom ? 

C. {cifter a pause). Because it would starve if it had not 
wings. 

T. And what else does it show beside his wisdon. ? 

C. {after another pause). His goodness. 

T. His goodness in what ? 

C. In giving the bat these wings to fly in the air. 

T. But why does that show his goodness ? 

C. Because it would not be able to get its food without 
them. 

T. Then there is another thing that shows' God's goodness ; 



32 INTRODUCTION. 

what is it ? (No answer.) What did I tell you it does in the 
•winter ? 

C. It sleeps. 

T. "Well, how does that show God's goodness ? 

C. Because, when there are no insects, it does not require any 
food. 

T. Can you give me a text which speaks of God's goodness 
to all the things which he has made ? 

After a short pause, a little girl said, " Lord, how manifold 
are thy works ! in wisdom hast thou made them all : the earth is 
full of thy riches." 

T. Now, can you give me another short one ? (No answer.) 
Well, I will repeat it : " The Lord is good to all ; and his tender 
mercies are over all his works." Now repeat it after me. 

The children did so three or four times. The lesson then 
closed, and the children marched out of the room singing. 

THE CKITICISM OF THE TEACHERS IN TRAINING ON THE PRE- 
CEDING LESSON. 

Head Master (addressing the teachers). You have now to ex- 
ercise your judgment on the matter of this lesson, and on the man- 
ner in which it was given. Before you can give a correct opinion 
on a lesson, with what science ought you to be, in some degree, 
acquainted ? 

A Teacher. With the science of education. 

H. M. And what are the subjects which this science acts 
upon ? 

T. Children. 

H. M. What, then, should you know ? 

T. Something of the nature of children, and of the best 
method of working upon them so as to develop their faculties and 
form their characters. 

H. M. Recollect that the object of your "criticism lessons" is 
not to sit in judgment upon a companion — you have nothing to do 
with the person ; you are only so to appreciate the right and the 
wrong of the lesson that you may be led to imitate the one, and 
to avoid the other — that thus both you and the teacher whose les- 



CRITICISM LESSONS. 33 

son you are to consider, may learn to profit by our joint criticism. 
Can you tell me what ought mainly to guide a teacher in such a 
lesson as this — what main objects, or points, she should keep be- 
fore her in a lesson on natural history ? 

T. The adaptation of the parts of an animal to its habits. 

H. M. Be a little more general : what should be her main 
design ? 

T. To communicate information. 

H. M. Would you make it the main object of such a lesson 
to communicate information ? 

Another T. Certainly not. 

H. M. What, then, would be your object — what effect would 
you propose to produce on the children ? 

T. I would call forth their observation — I would require them 
to notice all the parts of the animal, and to examine them very 
minutely. 

H. M. Now, suppose that repeated from day to day, what do 
you think would be cultivated ? 

T. Habits of observation. 

H. M. And with young children, this is one main purpose of 
these lessons. The communication of information is a secondary 
one. Our first object is to discipline their minds, and prepare 
them to acquire knowledge. When you merely communicate in- 
formation, the mind of the child is in a passive state, which is the 
very opposite of that in which it ought to be. No doubt, the love 
and the pursuit of truth are among the ultimate objects of educa- 
tion : but during the training of your children, you are only pre- 
paring them for these objects. As the children looked at and saw 
the nice and curious claw of the bat, the strangely formed wing 
without any feathers, the body like that of a mouse, the feet not 
made for walking, and were told of the fine sense of feeling given 
to it, did it occur to you that they did more than obtain informa- 
tion ? 

T. Curiosity was excited ; and the tendency of this curiosity 
is to create an interest in all the objects by which they are sur- 
rounded. 

H. M. Then, as it regards information, do you see anything 
2* 



34 INTRODUCTION. 

in connection with the lesson that would, if it did not give them 
information, tend to the same result ? 

T. The children would be led to get it themselves, their curi- 
osity having been excited. 

H. M. Yes ; we should not value a lesson so much for the in- 
formation it gives, as for its tendency to cultivate in our children 
power and inclination to acquire information for themselves. We 
should endeavor to open to them the extensive volume of nature, 
and so to improve their faculties, that they may themselves inves- 
tigate it. 

T. You cannot call upon a child to observe anything, with- 
out, in some way, giving him information. 

H. M. True. But do you not see the difference between giv- 
ing information, and making him observe and examine a thing for 
himself ? 

T. Not clearly. 

H. M. In the one you direct the child's own efforts — you cul- 
tivate a power in the child which must always be useful ; in the 
other you merely pour in information, which may or may not be 
remembered. But it is not on the mind only that we produce 
effects. Do you know what is our farther design in a lesson in 
natural history ? 

T. To teach the heart ; to administer, it may be moral, and 
even spiritual good, to the children. 

H. M. How is this done ? 

T. By showing them the goodness of God in his works : this 
leads them to cultivate humane feelings, and to be kind to animals. 

H. M. Yes. And though the teacher said nothing about hu- 
mane feelings, yet when the children were led to see how wise 
and gracious God has been in adapting the parts of the animal to 
its uses, they must have felt interested in the animal, and be less 
disposed to treat it unkindly, and have been taught also to admire 
the wisdom and power of God. I will now read the sketch of the 
lesson. — The Head Master having read the sketch, continued : — 
Now you are in possession of the general object contemplated in 
such a lesson as this ; and you have also the teacher's written 
sketch, stating her special object and the manner of working it 



CRITICISM LESSONS. 35 

out ; you are, therefore, prepared to determine how far the teacher 
accomplished her purpose. 

The Head Master then directed the teachers to turn to page 
50 of "Useful Hints to Teachers,"* and to make use of the points 
that are there given, confining flieir attention to one of the three 
general divisions. 

First Teacher. I think the sketch is clearly arranged. The 
matter was well selected, and not too much for such children. 
There also appeared to me some attention paid to each part of the 
lesson, the animal itself being the chief thing in such a lesson. 
There was, however, a want of clearness — each point was not, as 
it were, settled as the teacher went on. I think a summary was 
not necessary ; there was repetition, which supplied the place of 
a summary. The children were led to see the wisdom and good- 
ness of God in so admirably adapting the structure of the animal 
to its habits. 

Second Teacher. I think the teacher seemed to have com- 
mand over the children. Order and attention were preserved, in 
part by the power of the teacher, but especially by the interest of 
the lesson. I do not, however, think that the interest in general 
was altogether so well kept up as it might have been, though 
many of the children seemed attentive. They saw very clearly 
how God had provided the animal with means adapted to the 
catching of its food, and with an instinct which enables it, when 
there is no food, to dispense with it altogether. 

Third Teacher. I think the teacher's manner was kind. She 
did not, however, speak with sufficient firmness to the children. I 
thought her tone of voice was very good. She paid great atten- 
tion to the pronunciation of the children, and corrected them in 
grammar. I thought the children might have been made to 
repeat with advantage some parts which they did not. 

//. M. Do you suggest repetition as a means of keeping up 
the general attention ? 

T. Yes ; and also of fixing the ideas gained on their minds. 
The questions were in general good ; but she did not always work 
out what the first question of a series seemed to aim at. 
* One of the Loudou Society's publications. 



36 INTRODUCTION. 

H. M. "When do you consider a question good ? 

T. "When the children, by means of it, are led to think. 

H. M. That is certainly one good feature of a question — in- 
deed, an essential one ; but your answer is general. 

T. It should be a question which leads them to observe, com- 
pare, or draw a right conclusion, as the case may be. There was 
one point in the questioning which struck me as bad ; she asked, 
how the bat caught its prey, and then did not wait for an answer, 
but went on. 

H. M. Yes ; this arises sometimes from want of patience, 
sometimes from not holding the idea to be developed with tenaci- 
ty ; it often defeats all the ends of questioning, and causes confu- 
sion in the gallery. A question may be good or bad, as it is, or 
is not, followed by another. "Would you consider the question, 
" Do you know how the bat obtains its prey?" a good one ? 

T. Such a question would only bring out Yes or No. 

H. M. It is therefore bad. Such a question is of no use, ex- 
cept to ascertain what extent of knowledge the children have ; 
and it leads to a habit of guessing. 

. T. I did not observe that any of the incidental circumstances 
of the lesson were noticed. 

H. M. What do you mean by incidental circumstances ? 

T. The state of the children. 

H. M. Do you call their mere state, as being quiet or noisy, 
attentive or inattentive, an incidental circumstance ? (A pause.) 
What does any one understand by an incidental circumstance ? 

A Teacher. Anything happening in the course of the lesson 
that the teacher did not expect, and that did not properly belong 
to it. Such incidents may often be used to give interest to a les- 
son. 

Third Teacher (in continuation). I think she was right in 
correcting the children in grammar. The words she made use of 
were sufficiently plain and simple. But she did not make them 
hold out their hands before speaking, as much as they ought to 
have done. 

H. M. "What is the use of making children hold out their 
hands ? 



CRITICISM LESSONS. 37 

T. To prevent disorder. But she allowed them to speak with- 
out waiting till she had pointed to them. 

H. M. The main use of this practice is, to ascertain what 
children are really at work, and to prevent the forward from an- 
swering all the questions ; to secure, in short, attention and thought 
from as many children as practicable. 

Fifth Teacher. The sketch of the lesson was not worked out 
in that part that spoke of the wings. I do not think the children 
understood how the sense of touch in the wings of the bat helped 
the animal to obtain its food. She appeared to confound the sense 
of touch with the fact of the closing of the wings ; I thought she 
seemed rather confused about it herself. Might she not have said 
a little more about the eye of the bat ? 

H. M. Will the next teacher make her observations without 
referring specially to the points already noticed, but keeping in 
view the general objects to which I called attention before we 
began to make our remarks ? 

Sixth Teacher. I think that what the teacher proposed to do 
in the first stage of the lesson was well calculated to cultivate ob- 
servation, and to excite the interest and curiosity of the children. 
She might, perhaps, have better prepared them to admire God's 
wisdom and goodness, by first showing them that the generality 
of animals with wings are birds, but that the present one was a 
singular case. She might have led them to see that although the 
animal had wings, yet that it had not another essential part of the 
bird, viz., a beak ; that while it had wings, it had a mouth with 
teeth, which birds have not. And then she might have led them 
to see that it was most like a mammal ; for although it had wings, 
which were the only things that it had in common with birds, yet 
that those wings had no feathers, and that although it appeared to 
be a bird, yet that in reality it had not the same parts as the bird. 
Then she could have shown them how adapted its parts were fot 
procuring its food, inasmuch as it lived on insects in the air ; and 
being a mammal, and its food being in the air, if it had no wings 
it could not have procured its food, and would, therefore, have 
starved. I have no doubt it might have brought the children to 
a stand, to determine whether it was a bird or a mammal ; if she 



38 INTRODUCTION. 

had shown them it had wings, they would have immediately said 
it was a bird ; but when she drew their attention to the mouth, 
teeth, and body, they would have seen that it was not a bird, but 
that it had the appearance of a mouse ; this, however, might have 
led to a profitable warning against hasty judgments ; it might 
have enabled her also to lead them to see more clearly the 
goodness of God in supplying this creature with wings. I think 
the teacher was extremely kind, and able to give the children 
information. 

Seventh Teacher. The main points of the lesson, good and 
bad, have been already touched upon. I thought the first part of 
the lesson was, upon the whole, very well given, with the excep- 
tion of that spoken of by the last teacher with regard to the dif- 
ference between the mammal and the bird. In the habits of the 
bat, and the adaptation of its parts to these habits, there was a 
little confusion ; but there was one good proof that the children 
sympathized witli the teacher ; that is, the interest increased as she 
went on, and when the lesson was finished, the interest seemed to 
be greater than at any other period. She might sometimes have 
exercised their minds a little more when they gave her an oppor- 
tunity, as in correcting wrong answers, and making the yoimger 
ones answer more frequently. Also, about the old walls, I think 
she might have got that out of the children without telling them. 
With respect to the bat getting its food, she told them something 
which I think she might have drawn from them without telling 
them. I think the sketch is very well written, and very clear, 
and, had she adhered to it, she would have given, in my judgment, 
an excellent lesson. 

//. M. In the remarks of the teachers generally, I quite con- 
cur. On the latter part of the lesson particularly, they are very 
good. The first part of the lesson (that which required the chil- 
dren to observe) was worked out the best. Are we to suppose 
that the teacher had then most time on her hands, or that she ex- 
cels more in cultivating the observing faculties of her children than 
the reflective ? This is a feature I often remark among the teach- 
ers in training. 

The teacher started well with the second head, the animal's 



CRITICISM LESSONS. 39 

habits ; but she did not keep the children so close to them as she 
might have done. 

When any idea has been worked out, the children should 
always be made to exfiress it clearly. The teacher several times 
failed in this ; as when she led the children to observe the wings 
and the hooks. It was rather by a kind of false reasoning, or 
taking something for granted, than by observation, that the animal 
was discovered to have a mouth instead of a beak. 

In the third part of the lesson, although she failed a little in 
holding firmly her own ideas, and in leading the children to see 
clearly the adaptation of the organs, yet it was fairly done. It is 
much to her credit, that, whilst she lost herself several times dur- 
ing the lesson, she rallied ; a circumstance which always proves 
to me that the teacher has made progress in her training. She 
had her point before her, but stumbled in attaining it. 

You gave the sketch credit for being full and clear ; but did it 
not evince thought and ingenuity in its arrangement ? There was 
a nice choice of parts and habits, which told well in leading the 
children to perceive adaptation. I hardly agree with one of you 
about omitting the summing up. Although there was a great deal 
of repetition, I do not think that repetition ought to have supplied 
the place of a summary ; it does not answer the same purpose. 
Neither do I think that in such a lesson a summary is unnecessary. 
Whenever you want to make an impression on the hearts of the 
children, you should endeavor to bring before them, in a connected 
form, those features or ideas of the lesson by which you expect to 
produce such an effect. 

The fourth head was to lead the children to see and feel the 
wisdom, power, and goodness of God. Now, to accomplish this, 
a summary of the points of adaptation ought to have been made 
and repeated by the children ; such as, The body is that of an 
animal, but its food is in the air ; therefore, to procure this food, 
God has given it wings. It comes out in the dusk, when its prey 
is abroad, and it catches it while flying ; therefore God has pro- 
vided it with a sense of touch so exquisite, as to be equal to sight, 
and also with a large mouth. These points and others, brought 
into one or two sentences, should have been repeated before mak- 



40 INTRODUCTION. 

ing the application. It has often been remarked to you, that whilst 
the true catechetical method of teaching is admirable, yet one 
effect of giving lessons by questions is, that of separating it into 
parts or fragments, and consequently the children cannot see the 
matter of the lesson as a whole, or the harmony and dependence 
of its parts. The summary ought amply to make up for this, and 
after a minute and accurate examination of the parts, to present 
the subject as a whole. 

There was a little of the same want of power in the applica- 
tion that I remarked under the third head ; but it must be admit- 
ted that this is the most difficult part of a lesson. It requires 
sound judgment, very considerable clearness, and no small degree 
of practice. A teacher may consider herself well advanced in 
training when she is able to do it clearly. I like the remarks of 
one of the teachers on the order and attention of the children. I 
do not know that she required to show very much power of com- 
mand, because the children were particularly steady and willing 
to work. The interest of several was very satisfactory, but it was 
not general. 

Such questions as, " "What time do the insects come out ? " 
" Can the bat see the insects ? " are bad, because they lead the 
children to guess ; they imply knowledge which the children have 
not. With the exceptions stated, the great principle of not tell- 
ing young children what they can discover by the exercise of their 
own faculties, was carried out ; also the important one of keeping 
the children intellectually active during the lesson. Finally, a 
religious turn was given to the lesson, without any apparently 
forced feeling on the part of either the teacher or children. 

V.— Reports of Model Lessons. 

Simultaneously with the Criticism Lessons, it is of equal im- 
portance that the class should see a sufficient number of Model 
Lessons, i, e., lessons given by teachers thoroughly trained, with 
the view of exemplifying the treatment of a given subject. The 
class should learn to draw up reports (abstracts) of these lessons 
while hearing them, or directly afterward, taking special notice of — 



REPORTS OF MODEL LESSONS. 



41 



1. The ideas the teacher draws from the children. 

2. The plan she adopts in order to draw out these ideas. 

Example. — Report of Model Lesson on the Seal. 



I. — Habits, etc. 

1. The seal lives in 
water and on land. 
It is found in cold 
countries. 

2. The seal feeds on 
water fowl and fish. 



3. The seal is lov- 
ing and intelligent. 



4. The hearing of 
the seal is acute. 

II. — Adaptation of 
structure to habits. 

1. The body of the 
seal should be light, 
slender, tapering, and 
flexible. 



2. The limbs of the 
seal should be short 
and broad. 



I. — 1. Drawn from the children, who 
were led to form the sentence, which was 
written on the board. 



2. Drawn from the children by asking 
them what food the seal would be likely 
to find in or near the water, and such 
framed into a sentence, and W. B. 

3. Drawn from the children by ques- 
tioning on an anecdote told them. Terms 
loving and intelligent given. (S. R.) Sen- 
tence framed. (W. B.) 

4. Drawn as an inference from anecdote 
told. Little girl gave term acute. (W. B.) 

II.— 

1. Drawn from the children by refer- 
ence to the animal's food, fish ; how these 
move rapidly, suddenly ; how the seal 
must move rapidly also to catch them. 
What kind of body he must have to ena- 
ble him to move and turn quickly. Teach- 
er required the children to represent on the 
board such a shaped body as seal ought to 
have. 

2. The necessity for breadth drawn out 
by reference to different things made to 
go in the water, as oars of a boat, fins of 
a fish, &c. Why the seal cannot have 
fins, drawn out by reference to his double 
habitation (land and water). Advantage 
of shortness drawn out by asking why the 
limbs of a dog would not suit the seal — 
they would be too narrow as well as too 
long. 



42 



INTRODUCTION. 



3. The tail of the 
seal should be broad 
and flexible. 

4. The seal should 
have sharp, strong 
teeth. 

5. The seal should 
have lungs. 

6. The seal should 
have a warm cover- 
ing. 



7. The seal has 
short, thick, smooth 
fur. 



3. Brought out by reference to a rud- 
der. 



4. Brought out by 
character of its food. 



reference to the 



5. Brought out by reference to its com- 
ing to land, and its swimming with its head 
above the surface. 

6. Brought out by exercising the rea- 
son in discovering what kind of covering 
an animal thus situated needs. Children 
at first said scales. Teacher told them 
these woidd not be warm enough, but de- 
sired them to judge how it was that scales 
would suit the fish and not the seal. Oth- 
ers supposed that because the seal some- 
times came out of the water ; others, be- 
cause the fish lived in warm countries. 
By referring to the sensation of feeling or 
touching a fish, led them to see that the 
fish had cold blood. Teacher told them 
that the seal had warm blood, and there- 
fore needed warm covering. 

By reference to the covering of a dog, 
sheep, and the effect of water, etc., on 
this, children decided what sort of cover- 
ing an animal needs which is always swim- 
ming, or climbing rocks. 

Each point, as drawn from the children, 
framed into a sentence, and put on the 
board. 

Summary read from the board. 



VI.— Miscellaneous Exercises in Method. 

First Example. — Exercise on the Fable, " The Lark and her 

Young Ones." 

(See "Moral Instruction,'' 1 last lesson of Second Step.) 

Directions for Students. 

I. — State the Point. 

II. — Find the Introduction. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN METHOD. 43 

III. — Find the Points on which the Conceptive Faculties 
should be exercised. 

IV. — Find the Points on which the Reasoning Faculties 
should be exercised. 

V. — Where the application should be made. 

Students' Answers. 

I. Point. — To teach the advantage of self-reliance. 

II. Introduction. — To see that the children have an idea of a 
lark — kind of bird as to size, color, mode of life — before telling 
the story. 

III. Points on which the Conceptive Faculties are exercised. — 
The corn field — appearance of the ripe corn — the hidden nest, 
with mother bird and young ones — the anxiety of the farmer — 
conversation in the field — should be, as it were, dramatically ren- 
dered. 

IV. Points on which to exercise the Reasoning Faculties. — 
"Why the lark builds her low nest amongst the corn. What clan- 
ger she avoids. What danger she incurs. What the young birds 
would infer from the first and second conversations. What the 
old bird. What the young birds would infer from the third con- 
versation. What the old bird. What she would do. 

V. Application. — To be made after the narration of each con- 
versation. 

Second Example. — Exercise on Sketch on the Tortoise. 

(See " Course on Animals" " Miscellaneous Sketches") 

Students examine sketch, and state : 
I. — What is told, and why. 
II. — What must be developed. 
III. — Where the Observation is exercised. 
IV. — Where the Reasoning Faculty. 
V. — Where the Conceptive Faculty. 

Students' work should stand substantially as follows : — 
I. — 1. What is told. — The tortoise lives either on land or in 
water It moves slowly on the ground, but swims beautifully. 



44 INTRODUCTION. 

It comes on land to deposit its eggs, of which it lays a great num- 
ber — scrapes a hole in the ground, and leaves them to be hatched 
by the heat of the sun. 

1. "Why. — Because the children have no opportunity of ob- 
serving. 

2. "What is told. — The eggs of birds become hard, those of 
reptiles soft, by boiling. 

2. Why. — Because it would be inconvenient to try the ex- 
periment. 

3. The tortoise is covered by a thick, hard, strong shell ; the 
tail has a scaly covering of its own. 

3. Because a picture is used instead of a specimen. If a 
specimen shell can be procured, this would not be told. 

II. — What must be developed. — All that can be discovered by 
the observation or the reasoning faculty. 

III. — Where the Observation is exercised. — The tortoise has 
a small head like that of a serpent, four legs, and a tail. The 
shell that covers the back has thirteen large pieces in the middle, 
and twenty-three smaller pieces round the margin. The head and 
legs are without armor. 

TV. — Where the Reasoning Faculty is exercised. 

1. Eggs of reptiles become soft by boiling. The eggs of the 
tortoise become soft by boiling, therefore we infer that the tortoise 
is a reptile. 

2. Provision is made for the safety of the young of all classes 
of animals. The tortoise is one of a class of animals, therefore 
provision is made for the safety of its young (while in the egg). 

3. Animals that can fight possess weapons of attack. The 
tortoise has no weapons of attack, therefore the tortoise cannot 
fight. 

4. All creatures with thick horny coverings are reptiles. The 
crocodile has a thick horny covering, therefore the crocodile is a 
reptile. 

V. — Where the Conceptive Faculty is exercised. — The tortoise 
on a bright summer day. The tortoise scraping away the sand to 
lay its eggs. 



COLOR. 

In the First Step the teacher exercises the Perceptive Facul- 
ties in distinguishing the nine Colors, also Black and White. The 
Memory is exercised in learning the names attached to these. 
Order and Taste in arranging them. 

In the Second Step the Conceptive Faculty is exercised, also 
a more minute Perception. 

The first of these, in recalling the ideas of Colors previously 
seen. The second, in distinguishing the Tints and Shades of the 
nine Colors. Names learned as before. 

In the Third Step, the Reasoning Faculties are exercised on 
the relation of Colors and the production of Hues. As a matter 
of course, the subject being Color, the Perceptive Faculty is exer- 
cised still. It now distinguishes the Hues, which are named as 
before. 

In the Fourth Step, Imagination is exercised, with the Powers 
of Analogy and Generalization. 

FIRST STEP. 
Distinguishing Prominent Colors. 

1. Lesson given to the Class. Distinguishing Blue and Yellow. 

I. — 1. Point to the yellow pattern on the board. Let a child 
pick up a card like it ; compare the yellow, placing the card be- 
side the pattern. Let all the children present decide whether a 
correct choice has been made. 



46 COLOR. 

2. Select a yellow card ; call on a child to find the correspond- 
ing color amongst all those exhibited on the board. The other 
children judge and decide as before. 

3 and 4. Proceed with blue as with yellow. 

II. — 1. Exercises. — Select two yellow and two blue wafers ; 

Y. 
arrange them thus : B. B. Let a child place other blue and 

Y. 
yellow wafers in corresponding positions. 

Y B 

2. Place the wafers -r,' -y • -A- child to imitate as before. 

3. Thread five large beads thus— B. Y. B. Y. B. A child to 
imitate. 

(As many children as possible are employed in this, and all the 
rest as judges whether the actions are correctly performed.) 

The members of the class draw out sketches of lessons on 
Bed and Green or on Orange and Purple, inventing different ex- 
ercises for each sketch. 

2. Lesson on naming principal Colors. 

1. Show a red card. Let a child select one that is similar; 
say : " This is red." This is to be repeated by the children 
simultaneously while looking at the card. Let another child select 
all the red cards that are to be found. 

2 and 3. Proceed in the same way with yellow and with blue. 

4. Point rapidly to the blue, red, and yellow patterns, re- 
questing the children to give their names as pointed to. 

5. Bid a child place a yellow card on the table, a red one on 
the desk, and a blue one on the chair. 

6. Select 3 children ; one to find examples of blue, one of red, 
one of yellow ; red on the furniture of the room, or the dress of any 
one present. 

7. Let a child place the colors on a line, according to direc- 
tion, as blue, yellow, red, yellow, blue. 

The members of the class draw out sketches according to the 
pattern, on : 



COLOE. 



47 



Distinguishing and naming Orange, Green, and Purple. 
" " Citrine, Russet, and Olive. 

3. Lesson on Arrangement of Yellow, Reel, and Blue. 

1. Let the children select all the yellow, blue, and red 
cards. 

2. Form them into patterns thus : 

Y. 

r t>' r>' & c - & c - 

Y. ' 

3. Let the children imitate these patterns ; when they can do 
so readily, encourage them to invent new ones, selecting the colors 
in order to cultivate the eye to harmonious combinations. 

Till the subject of Color is better understood, the general teacher 
will be found to require special preparation on this point. The 
class should be exercised in combining colors according to the laws 
of harmony ; as — 

1. Harmony of Primaries with Secondaries. 
Yellow. 



Y. 

R. B. R. 

Y. 



Purple, Purple. 
Yellow. 



Red, Green. 
Green, Red. 



Orange, Blue, Blue, Orange. 



Orange. 

Purple, Green, Purple. 

Orange. 



Harmonies of Secondaries with each other. 

Orange. 
Green, Purple. 
Purple, Green. 

Orange. 

Purple. 

Green. Orange. 

Orange. Green. Purple 

Green. Orange. 

Purple. 

3. Harmony of Secondaries with Tertiaries. 
Citrine, Russet 



Purple. 



Orange. 

Green. 

Orange. 



Russet, Citrine. 



Olive, Orange, Olive. 



Citrine, Olive. 
Olive, Citrine. 



4. Harmony of Tertiaries with Primaries. 



Citrine, Red. 
Citrine, Blue. 
Citrine, Red. 



Yellow, Russet. 
Russet, Blue. 
Yellow, Russet. 



Yellow, Red, Olive. 
Yellow, Red, Olive. 
Yellow, Red, Olive. 



48 COLOR. 

These will suffice for examples. Class continue to form pat- 
terns with — 

5. Citrine, Russet, and Olive. 

6. Black, Red, and Olive. 

7. Black, Orauge, and Green. 

8. Black, Red, Yellow, Orange, and Green. 

9. Gray, Red. 

10. Gray, Green. 

11. Gray, Red, and Green. 

12. White with Blue. 

13. White with Purple. 

4. Lesson given to develop the Perception of the most obvious 
Harmonies of Color. 

1. Let the children who have been accustomed to combine 
colors, select those they wish to place side by side. After their 
previous practice in arrangement, the children as a class will make 
good combinations. Should an individual child choose, say a 
green and blue, take a similar blue, and put it beside an orange. 
Let all decide whether blue and green or blue and orange look 
better together. 

Even when good combinations are made, as purple and green, 
it is sometimes well to resort to the plan of putting a red with the 
purple, that all may see how much better the green looks. 

2. Colors which look well together, to be placed in order be- 
fore the children, who commit to memory the results of their obser- 

t vations and comparisons, as facts, and without reference to rules. 
Colors arranged thus — 

Yellow and Purple. 

Red and Green. 

Blue and Orange. 

Orange and Purple. 

Green and Purple. 

Purple and Green. 
Members of the class draw up sketches on the Harmonies of 
Black with Red, &c. 

The Harmonies of White and Gray, &c, &c. 



COLOE. 49 

SECOND STEP. 
I. Remembering Principal Colors. 

1. Lesson on the Color Blue. 

1. To make sure that the children have a clear idea of the 
color, let the youngest child select all the pieces of card that are 
blue, while the rest are employed in finding any objects of a blue 
color in the room. 

2. Lead the children to compare these blues with their recol- 
lections of the color in objects not just now visible. "What 
they see overhead is blue. Whether the sky is always blue. 
"What other colors they have seen it show. When it is bluest. 
At what season of the year, &c, &c. 

3. Let the children name flowers that are blue, as harebells, 
speedwell, forget-me-not. Where these flourish ; whether in 
meadows and gardens, or on heaths or roadsides. 

4. Let children name fruits that are blue ; as the blueberry 
and plum. Whether these are blue, as the pattern is blue. They 
are rather blue. " Things rather blue are said to be bluish." (S. R.) 

5. Let children name animals that have any part blue. 

(«) Birds : Peacock, kingfisher, duck, swallow, jay. 

{b) Insects : Some beetles, dragon fly, house fly. These, 

why called bluebottles ; children to say what parts 

are blue. 

6. Any other natural objects that are blue or bluish, as steel, 
phosphorus. 

Summary. — Children name from memory : Things that have 
life and are blue. Tilings (natural) not having life that are blue. 

2. Lesson on the Color Yellow. 

1. Introduce this lesson as that on blue. 

2. Lead children to name any natural objects of a yellow color. 
Write all the names on the board, and help children to classify. 

(a) What birds with any part yellow ? Canaries, yellow- 
hammer ; also the crest of the cockatoo is yellow 
3 



50 COLOK. 

(b) What insects are in part yellow ? Some butterflies, 

caterpillars, wasps. 

(c) What flowers contain yellow ? Buttercups, daisies, 

sunflowers, &c. What part of each is yellow ? 
When leaves are yellow. 

(d) What fruits ? Lemons, some gooseberries, green 

gages, apricots, apples. Whether these are yellow as 
the card is yellow. They are yellowish. 

(e) Other natural objects ; as, sulphur, gold, brass, sand, 

straw, ochre, butter, yelk of eggs, sometimes the sky ; 
when? 
3. Summary. — Children say what animal, vegetable, and min- 
eral substances are wholly or in part yellow. 
Members of the class draw out sketches on — 
Red. Orange and Purple. 

Green. Citrine, Russet, and Olive. 

The following lesson presented to the class for analysis : 
The class find where observation is exercised ; where memory, 
conception, and imagination ; where judgment. 

3. General Lesson on Color. 

1. Bring before the children a variety of pebbles, black, white, 
and colored. Let them select those they like best. Question on 
the principle of selection, and lead them to discover that they find 
pleasure in looking at colored things. 

2. Let them say what color they can see by looking up- 
ward ; sky, blue ; clouds, white, black, or gray ; sun, moon, and 
stars, yellow. The rainbow, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, 
purple. 

What colors they can see in the fields ; grass which is green. 
Trees with green, red, or yellow leaves, and brown stems. 
Flowers, which? Let each name a flower of a different color, to show 
that these are of all colors. What they see when they stand on 
the shore. Yellow sand ; white, green, or black rocks ; green- 
ish sea. 

What living things show the brightest colors ? Tiger, leopard, 



COLOE. 51 

redbreast, bullfinch, peacock, macaw, kingfisher, butterflies, lady- 
birds, &c. "What parts of themselves are colored ? Hair, 
eyes, cheeks, lips. We see colors wherever we look — the earth 
is full of them. 

3. Lead the children to imagine the trees, flowers, and objects in 
general, all of one hue, as white, drab, gray. Let them trace the 
effect of such a state of things on their minds. It would make 
people feel dull. Bright colors make us feel cheerful. (S. R.) Sup- 
pose a gray rosebush, trained against the wall of a gray house, 
springing from a gray soil, under a gray sky, all the surrounding 
objects being gray. Were they sent to gather it, how near must 
they come before they would see it ? " Color helps us to distin- 
guish objects." (S. R.) 

Draw a similar picture, representing every object as red ; how 
painfully exciting ! as blue ; how cold and forbidding ! Refer to 
the effect of green ; soothing, cheerful, refreshing. Whether it 
would be better if everything out of doors were green, and 
why not. 

Who has furnished this earth with such a variety of colors ? 
Who has formed us to enjoy them ? What we learn of God. 

This lesson requires no summary. Itself is a summary of the 
previous lessons. 

II. Distinguishing and Naming Tints and Shades. 

Minute and accurate perception and power of comparison are 
cultivated. Vocabulary extended. 

1. Lesson on Tints and Shades of Blue. 

1. Let the children decide on the Color that shall be the sub. 
ject of this lesson. Suppose them to say blue. Produce varie. 
ties of this. Let them recognize each as blue. Let a child select 
the bluest of the blues, that which comes nearest to the color of 
the sky in summer. If practicable this selection should be made 
out of doors, or at the window. When azure is found, compare 
other blue or bluish objects with it. Children will find nothing 
bluer than azure. Tell them that because in judging of the blue- 



52 COLOK. 

ness of objects we go by this, it is called standard blue. " The 
bluest blue is called standard blue." (S. R.) 

2. Direct attention to the remaining varieties. Children to 
decide which of these look more like the night, which more like 
the day. Get the terms light and dark. Give the terms tint and 
shade. (S. R.) "The lighter blues are called tints, and the 
darker blues are called shades." 

3. Exercises. 

(a) Let the children place the blues in order, from tint to 

shade and from shade to tint. 

(b) Let a child find the darkest shade and the lightest tint. 

(c) Let a child find the tint and shade nearest to the 

standard. 

4. Show how convenient it would be if, instead of calling for 
the darkest shade, or the tint nearest to the standard, we had 
names for the varieties. Who would like to learn their names ? 
Who can mention something out of doors the color of the stand- 
ard (the sky) ? The name of the standard blue is sky blue, or 
azure. (S. R.) (W. B.) The name of the lightest tint is hyaline, 
or water Blue, the color of running water. The name of the tint 
next to azure is watchet, from an old name which meant weak 
blue. 

The name of the shade next to azure is lazuline, from lazuli, 
the mineral producing that color. 

The name of the darkest blue is indigene, from indigo. (S. R. 
after each name which is written on the board as given.) 

5. The children having learned the names, touch the cards 
when named, and name them when touched, irregularly, and in 
order : 

Hyaline, Watchet, Azure, Lazuline, Indigene. 

2. Lesson on Tints and Shades of Med. 
1. Let the youngest child select the reddest of the reds, or the 
standard red. If there be any hesitation, compare with a piece 
of red coral. The red like this to be the standard. Let an- 
other child point out the tints, a third the shades, a fourth arrange 
them in order. 



COLOK. 53 

2. Refer to the object with which the standard was compared, 
or now make the comparison. The standard, being like coral, is 
called coraline. Let the children, if they can, name any object 
like the shade next to coraline. It is like blood. It is some- 
times called blood red, sometimes Venetian red. "We will call it 
venetia. Let children find an object like the darkest shade ; 
some roses, called black roses, are of this color. It is called 
morone, which means black red. Children find the tint nearest 
the standard. They will say it is pink. It is a full pink, the 
color of a rose. We will call it rosine. There is one tint more. 
There is something about themselves of the same color. It is flesh 
color. We will call it carneline. 

3. Children name the shades, tints, standard, as called on. 
Give the meanings, &c, of the names. Say which color they 
like best ; which they would prefer for a dress in winter ; which 
for a dress in summer, &c. Name the colors in order : 

Carneline, Rosine, Coraline, Venetia, Morone. 
Class draw up sketches on — 

Tints and shades of Yellow. 
" Green. 

" " Purple and Orange. 

" " Citrine, Russet, and Olive. 

THIRD STEP. 

Distinguishing Colors as Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary. Also 
Hues of Color. 

1. Lesson on Production of Secondary Colors. 
1. Produce the colors yellow, red, and blue. Desire the 
children to name other colors, as purple and orange. Show 
orange, and let children say whether it most resembles yellow, 
red, or blue. (Yellow.) Show purple. Children will decide 
whether this most resembles red or blue. Tell the children that 
all colors bear some resemblance to yellow or red or blue ; be- 
cause all other colors are derived from these. These are the first 
or primary colors. (S. R.) " Yellow, red, and blue are the 
primary colors." 



54 COLOR. 

2. Mix yellow ochre and indigo blue. Let the children note 
the operation and the result. (S. R.) " Green is a mixture of 
yellow and blue." Proceed in the same way with yellow and 
red (carmine), producing orange ; and with blue and red, pro- 
ducing purple. By reference to the term primary, draw from 
the children the name that will characterize this second set of 
colors, viz., secondary. (S. R.) "Orange, green, and purple 
are secondary colors." 

3. Write on the board the names of the secondary colors, as 
dictated by the children. 

Yellow -|- Blue = Green. 

Yellow -f- Red = Orange. 

Blue -f Red = Purple. 
S. R., till committed to memory. 

Class draw up sketch on the Production of Tertiary Colors 
from Secondary." 

2. Lesson on Hues of Color. 

1. Take yellow and blue pigments. Before mixing, call at- 
tention to the proportions of yellow and blue — about half as much 
yellow as blue. Tell children that were these substances per- 
fectly free from earthy particles, we should take exactly 3 parts 
of yellow to 8 of blue. 

S. R. "Yellow is to blue as 3 is to 8." 

2. Let children say how this proportion might be varied : we 
would take more yellow and less blue. Let them judge of the 
effect this would have in the product. The green produced would 
be yellowish green. Perform the experiment, conforming to or 
correcting their judgments. 

Tell them that this green is called, not a tint, nor a shade, but 
a hue of green. 

How else the proportions might be altered : we might take 
more blue and less yellow than at first. The effect, this would 
have on the product, inferred, and the experiment tried as before. 
We have now bluish green, another hue. 

Take yellow and red, directing attention to the proportions, 
which are as 3 to 5. Additional red will produce red orange, 



COLOK. 55 

and additional yellow pale orange. Children should first see if 
they can infer the results, and then find them by experiment. 

Take red and blue, proportions 5 to 8. Proceed as before. 

3. Children led to explain how the " Hues of Secondary Colors 
are formed by an extra proportion of one of the Primaries, which 
compose the Secondary." (S. R.) 

3. Lesson on Hues of Red. 

1. Produce varieties of red. Let children select and name 
those that they know. Standard, tints, and shades. 

2. Let them proceed to classify the hues of red, putting them 
into two groups. They will at once separate the yellowish reds 
from the bluish reds. Let them try to account for the difference 
in line. Should they fail in doing this, produce an orange card. 
Let them point out the set of reds which come nearest to it, and 
account for the resemblance. These reds have yellow in them. 
Children to judge of the color which tinges the remaining set of 
reds. These reds have blue in them. " Some hues of red are 
tinged with yellow, and some with blue." (S. R.) 

3. Children arrange the yellow reds in order, and learn their 
names. The deepest scarlet ; the next vermilion ; something 
the third is like : the flesh of salmon. It is called salmon color, or 
salmonine. 

Children arrange the blues. The darkest and bluest of the 
reds is called crimson. The next magenta, from a battle which 
was fought about the time this particular hue came into fashion. 
The last peachine. Why ? It is the color of a peach blossom. 

4. Children find examples of any of the hues ; are exercised 
on the names. They define tint, shade, and hue, thus : 

A tint of Red is Red lighter than the standard. 
A shade " " darker than the standard. 

A hue " " tinctured with some other color. 

At the close of the lesson, the colors are thus arranged : 
Salmonine. Vermilion. Scarlet. 
Carneline. Rosine. Coraline. Venetia. Morone. 
Peachine. Magenta. Crimson. 



56 COLOB. 

Class draw up lesson on hues of yellow ; hues of blue. 
Also on hues of green and purple. 

Leading the children to see, as a general rule, that a hue of a 
primary color is produced by a tincture of some other color. 

4. Lesson given on Hues of Black. 

1. Bring before the children several black objects : a piece of 
jet, a raven's wing, some rooks' feathers, a piece of black silk 
which has been worn, and some writing fluid. 

Let them select the standard black in the piece of jet. Give 
the term jettine. 

Let them examine the other objects, and pronounce what hues 
of black they exemplify. The wing is bluish black ; the rooks' 
feathers are purplish black ; the silk is rusty or brownish black ; 
the writing fluid is greenish black. 
Write on the board — 

Jettine or standard Black. 
Hue of greenish Black. 
" purplish Black. 
" bluish Black. 
" brownish Black. 

2. Children mention black objects, and define their hue. 
Note the difference between jet black hair and raven hair. 
Summary. — From the board. 

Class draw out sketches on hues of white and gray. 

5. Lesson on White and Black, as representing Light and 
Darkness. 

1. Ask the children to tell the color of light. " It has no 
color; light is colorless." (S. R.) What color will best represent 
it ? (S. R.) " White is the representative of light." 

2. Present a prism, and direct attention to the yellow, red, and 
blue rays. Explain, in the simplest language, that this instrument 
is able to divide the compound colorless rays, and show the 
primary colored rays that compose them. Children to say what 



COLOR. 57 

colored rays each colorless ray must contain. (S. K.) " Light is 
produced by the blending of red, yellow, and blue rays." 

3. Children to judge of the probable result of mixing red, 
yellow, and blue pigments ; to say in what proportion they 
should be mixed. 

Perform the experiment, and let them state the result. Get 
or give the reason. (S. R.) " The mixture of red, yellow, and 
blue pigments will not produce white, on account of the opaque 
and earthy substances all pigments contain." 

4. Children to say what is caused by the absence of light 
— darkness. How they would represent it. (S. R.) "Black rep- 
resents darkness." 

5. Lead the children to see that " as light (or white) is the 
blending of all colors, so darkness (or black) is the presence of no 
color." (S. R.) 

Summary. — Repetitions of S. R.'s. 

Class draw up sketch of lesson on the Rainbow, under the fol- 
lowing heads : 

I. — Appearance, form, colors ; their arrangement. Why the 
secondary colors alternate with the primary. 
II. — Formation of the rainbow. 
III. — The rainbow as the sign of a covenant. 



FOUETH STEP. 

1. Consideration of Colors as Emblematic. 

The children are exercised in drawing analogies. 

I- — Speak of spring. By reference to the cold winter season past, 
and to the bright long days, the summer flowers, and the harvest 
we expect, lead the children to look on spring as the time of 
promise. Refer to the young grass — the budding leaves ; contrast 
the delicate green of these with the sere brown of winter. How 
we hope to see the trees, the fields look. Tell the children, that 
3* 



58 COLOR. 

because light green is the spring color, people have taken it for 
an emblem of Hope. 

II. — Refer to the sky — its appearance at different times ; some- 
times cloudy. What the children would see were the clouds dis- 
persed. Always beyond these is the bright, changeless blue. 
Refer to the pain and sorrow which we all must endure, and to 
that better place where tears shall be wiped away. When we 
think of Heaven, at what object do we like to look ? Because 
blue puts us in mind of Heaven, it is taken as an emblem of Faith. 
Write on the slate the different colors. Children to give their 
ideas of the attributes these colors will best represent. Supply 
deficiencies and correct errors, till the writing on the slate ap- 
pears thus : 

Green — Hope. 

Blue— Faith. 

White — Innocence and candor. 

Black — Sorrow or mourning. 

Yellow — Desolation, despair. 

Red — Military glory, anger. 

Purple, or ) 

n . r Roval state. 

(Jnmson ) J 

Children to find reasons why the color should be taken as the 
emblem of the attribute. For white, refer to the snow. How 
beautiful — how easily soiled, yet how plainly showing the least 
stain ! 

For black, when people wear it. Why they prefer black to 
colors. Of what it puts us in mind. 

For yellow, when the landscape looks yellow ; with what feel- 
ings we view it. Why ? So proceed with the other colors. 

Children must be told that purple is taken as an emblem of 
dignity, from its association with the dress of kings. At first it 
was worn by the Greek magnates only, on account of the rarity 
of the mollusk that produced the dye. Then it became an emblem 
of State. 

It might also be explained, that in China the royal and noble 
color is yellow ; and why ? viz., the sun appears of a yellow 



COLOR. 59 

color, and the court of Pekin is supposed to be modelled on the 
plan of the court of Heaven. 

III. — Summary. — Teacher names the colors ; children say 
what they emblematize. The same thing reversed. 

2. Lesson on White as an Emblem. 

I. — Children to mention objects of the purest whiteness ; as 
snow, a lily, ivory, white marble, swan's down. 

Exercise the conceptive faculty. How dazzling the new-fallen 
snow ; how different to the same snow when the thaw com- 
mences, and it shows black footsteps ! How fair and regal the 
fresh white lily ; how different it looks when it displays faded and 
yellowish petals ! Refer in the same way to the plumage of the 
swan when wild ; to ivory and marble when stained. In which 
condition are these objects most pleasing to the eye ? Thus de- 
velop the idea of the beauty of these objects, as consisting in 
their hue. 

II. — Tell the children that there are some things more beautiful 
than any snow, lilies, or ivory. That these are not outward, but 
inward things. 

Draw the picture of a child always gentle in his manners to 
the young, and respectful to his elders ; kind in his actions, al- 
ways ready to help and oblige ; honest in his dealings with his 
playfellows, faithful in his duties at school and at home. How 
lovely a character ! To what natural object or quality can we 
compare this ? "White. "What if the child in question one day 
commit a manifest fault ; what if he be found in a lie, or even in 
a violent passion ? If we compare the former character to white- 
ness, to what may we compare his fault ? To a dark stain, sully- 
ing the pure whiteness. (W. B.) "White is the emblem of 
Innocence." 

III. — Children to say at what times people usually like to wear 
white. At weddings, on holidays, Sundays. How people feel on 
holidays. How they ought to feel on Sundays. The Lord's day 
is a festival — not a common, but a sacred one. Refer to Eccles. ix. 



60 COLOR. 

8, explaining that in ancient times men as well as women often 
wore white garments. 

Tell them that the ancient Greeks not only dressed for feasts 
in this way, but were in the habit of marking days of joy or 
triumph on their almanacs with a white stone, doubtless of the 
nature of chalk. (Rev. ii. 17.) Children to name the second thing 
that white is the emblem of—" Festivity." (W. B.) 

IV. — Refer to flags of different nations ; the use of flags ; the 
colors seen in them. Red, white and blue in the stars and stripes, 
in the tricolor of France, and the Union jack. The Italians have 
chosen a tricolor of red, green, and white. Other of the Euro- 
pean nations have yellow and black. The Turks hoist a green 
flag. The standard of each nation floats on its own territory, and 
in time of war on others' territory ; but when, in such a case, 
armies want to communicate peacefully one with another, they lay 
the national flag aside, and take a white flag, called a flag of truce. 
Explain truce. A soldier carrying such a flag as this may go 
into the centre of the enemy's camp ; the flag shows that he comes 
with a peaceful message ; none will harm him. " White is the 
emblem of Peace." (W. B.) 

V. — White emblematizes one thing more. The Bible tells us 
that the inhabitants of Heaven are clothed in white. It speaks 
of heavenly armies riding on white horses. (Rev. vii. 9 ; and xix. 
8 and 14.) What kind of place is Heaven? What kind of 
people its inmates ? When these are described as being clothed 
in white, of what is white the emblem ? " Of Purity, or Holiness." 
(W. B.) 

The Bible tell us of the high priest of the Jews, the type of 
Christ : once a year he went into the most holy place to make 
intercession for the people ; and then he wore white garments 
only — he represented a holy advocate. The Bible tells of a great 
white throne, set for the judgment, where the dead, small and 
great, shall stand before God. The throne is a holy throne. Refer 
the children to Rev. iii. 4 and 5, as a subject of prayer for the 
evening. They will repeat what white emblematizes, and give 
examples in each case. 



COLOR. 61 

Summary. — From the board : 

White is the emblem of Innocence. 
White is the emblem of Festivity- 
White is the emblem of Peace. 
White is the emblem of Purity and Holiness. 

Class exercised in drawing out sketches — 

1. On Black, as emblematic of Sorrow. 

" " Despair 

" Guilt. 

Death. 

2. On emblematic Mourning : 

The Chinese wear White. Why ? 
" Turks wear Blue or Violet. Why ? 
" English and Americans wear Black. Why ? 

3. On Railway Signals : 

White means Safety. Why ? 
Green " Caution. Why? 
Red " Danger. Why? 

4. On common Flowers as Symbols : 
Rose, 

Showing how much their 
► symbolical meaning depends 



Lily, 

Violet, 

Harebell, 

Forget-me-not. 



on their color. 



5. On Color as indicating Flavor. According to Linnaeus, red 
indicates an acid or sour taste. As examples — cranberries, bar- 
berries, currants, mulberries ; herbs that turn red toward autumn, 
as sorrel and bloodydock. . 

Green indicates an alkaline taste. As examples — leaves and 
unripe fruit. 

Yellow a bitter taste ; as gentian, aloes, celandine. 

White indicates a sweet taste ; as white currants, white cher- 
ries, apples, sugar, &c. 

Black indicates a nauseous, disagreeable taste ; as deadly night- 
shade, sumac. 

6. On Colors as Sacred Emblems : 

In the tabernacle : In the garments of the high priest. 



FORM. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

That " the child sees in nature objects, not lines," is a truth 
which nobody will attempt to deny. On these objects are seen, 
on closer examination, some common properties belonging to form 
and outline. That which strikes the eye most, is the size and 
shape of the object. Its size is dependent on its length, breadth, 
and thickness, which properties are treated in the chapter on 
Size. The shape or form of an object is chiefly visible on its 
surface, which, together with its divisions, or faces, will claim 
most of the child's attention in the First Step. 

The principal feature of the First Step is, that it makes the chil- 
dren examine and describe forms on the objects themselves ; that 
it avoids technical names and definitions as much as possible, and 
makes but very few classifications. In the Second Step, begin- 
ning with the directions of the straight line, the child is led to 
perceive and describe elements of form, that have been abstracted 
from the objects, and are represented by lines and figures. The 
Third Step describes and classifies solids. 

FIRST STEP. 

Development of Common Properties belonging to 
Surface. 

1. Lesson on the Surface and Faces of Solids. 

The teacher presents to the class an object — say a square box. 
Tell me, which is the outside ? Which is the inside ? "Which is 



FORM. FIRST STE1\ 63 

the bottom ? "Which is the cover, or lid ? Where are its sides ? 
We will turn the box over ; now, where is the top of the box ? 
Where the bottom ? Tell me if you can see any difference be- 
tween them. Then what can you say of the parts of the out- 
side ? They are alike. We will call the outside, surface, and the 
parts of the surface, faces. What do we call the outside ? "What 
do we call the parts of the outside ? • 

The teacher may then show them a regular solid — a cube, for 
instance, and ask, What do you call this ? A block. Show me 
its top ; its sides ; its bottom. I will turn the block over : now 
show me the top ; bottom ; sides. How many faces has this 
block ? Let one child point out one of its faces, another a differ- 
ent face, &c, till all are pointed out. 

"We will now repeat what we have learned. The outside of 
an object is called its surface. The parts of the surface are called 
faces. Show me the faces of the box ; of this book ; of the 
bookcase ; of your slates, &c. 

The teacher may now show the class another object — say a 
sphere — and call upon one of the children to come and cover the 
surface with his hands. How many parts has the surface ? Do 
you know the name of this object ? (If the children call it a ball, 
the name may for the moment be retained.) Here is another 
object (a cone). Show me its surface. Move your hand over 
the whole surface. How many parts are there to this surface ? 
What do we call these parts ? Faces. Let us compare the 
faces of the objects before us. If I move this block, will it roll ? 
Why not ? Right ; because its faces are flat. Instead of flat, 
cay plane. But if I move this object (the sphere), what will it 
do ? Why will it roll ? Because it3 surface is round. Teacher 
places the cone on its base, and asks, Now will this object roll ? 
Why not ? Teacher places the cone on its side, and moving it, 
asks, And now what can you say it does ? It rolls. And why ? 
Now repeat, An object may have a plane or a round surface. It 
may also have plane and round faces. Now show me objects in 
the room that have a plane surface ; others which have a round 
surface ; others which have both plane and round faces. (The 
cylindrical and conical objects belong to this class.) 



64 FORM. — FISST STEP. 

2. On the Edges and Corners of Solids ; the Idea of Straight 
and Curved developed. 

The teacher again presents the block, and asks a child to 
point out two of its faces that meet each other. She bids him 
further to move his finger along between them. (Presenting 
the blade of a knife.) Where do the faces of this blade meet ? 
Yes ; at the edge. Now let us call the meeting of two faces an 
edge. "What is an edge? Show me the edges of this block. 
How many are there? Where do they meet? What do 
you call this part of a table-top ? Yes, a corner ; edges meet 
in a corner. Repeat this. How many corners are there in 
this block? How many edges do you see in this object (a 
sphere) ? How many corners ? How many edges in this object 
(a cone) ? How many corners ? We might in the latter case 
call that one corner at the top its point. Point out the edges and 
corners of this table ; of this book ; of this tumbler, &c. 

Now move your finger along one of the edges of the block, 
and now on the edge of this solid (the cone). Did you move ex- 
actly in the same way ? Who can tell me the difference ? 

Although the children may already have both the idea and 
names of straight and curved, yet we may seize this opportunity 
of illustrating one of the most important elements, or rather the 
element of form, by means of drawing. For this purpose the 
teacher draws distinctly and correctly a straight line and a circu- 
lar curve on the blackboard, and gives them the names of straight 
and curved lines. She then asks which of these lines repre- 
sents an edge of the cube, and which of them the edge of the 
cone. 

If any further definition of straight and curved is required, the 
teacher may say, The straight line never changes its direction, 
while the curved line is continually changing its direction. The 
word " direction" may be illustrated by the teacher, in moving 
from one point in the room to another. By going directly, or the 
shortest way, from one point to the other, she describes a straight 
line ; on the contrary, if she gradually turns to the right or left 
of this line, and then returns to it again, she has been out of the 



FOKM. FIKST STEP. 65 

straight line ; and if her motion was traced on the floor, it would 
be by a curved line. 

The teacher must make some other curves on the board, be- 
side the circle and the arc, in order that the idea of curve may 
become somewhat generalized. 

She lastly requires the children to name and point out objects, 
the edges of which describe a straight line ; others, of which the 
edges are curved ; others, which have edges both straight and curved. 

It may be well for the children, as well as the teacher, to 
know that in copying objects from nature, we draw what is called 
their outline ; this outline is sometimes analogous to the edges of 
the solid, which form the boundary of our view. But in some 
solids, as the sphere, the cone, the cylinder, the outline does not 
always coincide with the edges, but is visible on the rounded 
surface. 

3. On Angles and Enclosed Spaces. 

They are classified and named according to the number of their 
sides. The teacher might here ask the children whether they 
think they could enclose a space with one straight line, or, to ren- 
der the case more obvious, with one straight stick ? Whether 
they think it could be done with one curved line f The children 
may suggest a circle, or an ellipse. 

The teacher then may continue the exercise by asking whether 
a space could be surrounded by two straight lines (to be illustrated 
by sticks placed in the form of a right angle). On how many 
sides is this space surrounded ? "Where is it open ? The teacher 
may make a drawing of this combination, and tell them that this 
is called an angle, and that an angle may be more or less open. 
(Teacher changes the position of the sticks to illustrate this.) 

Questions. — Show me some angles on the blackboard? 
"Which is the most shut ? Which is more open ? Which is the 
most open ? 

Next require the children to find out whether, with three 
straight lines, a space can be entirely surrounded or shut in, and 
to show it by arranging sticks on the floor. This done, a triangle 
is formed, which the teacher copies, and to which she gives the 



66 FORM. FIRST STEP. 

name, letting the children repeat : A space which is enclosed by 
three sides is called a three-sided figure, or triangle. 

(N. B. — The teacher has to tell them, that in speaking of en- 
closed spaces, we use the word side, instead of line.) 

After this, the children are required to find out how a space 
can be enclosed by four straight lines, which the teacher copies 
on the blackboard, representing not only the square, but, if she 
chooses, the rhomb, rhomboid, trapezoid, trapezium, and oblong, 
to which the children will easily give the name of four-sided 
figures. The children may now select these from the box of forms. 

Question. — What is a four-sided figure ? 

The same plan is continued, so as to include the five, six, 
seven, and eight-sided figures. 

An excellent plan, still further to impress these forms upon the 
senses and the minds of the children, will here be suggested, as 
being within the scope of every teacher. Let her draw the 
figures described above on pasteboard ; after this, the figures are 
cut out by means of a penknife, so that the holes, as well as the 
pieces cut out, may serve as illustrations of these forms. It will 
be well to draw and cut out several kinds of four-sided figures, 
since each of them represents forms of frequent occurrence. It is 
doubtful whether the proper Greek names ought to be given to 
these quadrilaterals at this step, such as rhomb, trapezoid, &c. 
"We should propose to take the children's names, such as window- 
shaped, boat-shaped, etc., which will prove to be more practical, 
especially for purposes of drawing. "Calkin's Chart of Forms" 
may be used in connection with these exercises, the children 
pointing out upon the chart the figures corresponding to the forms 
cut from pasteboard. The figure on the chart named parallelo- 
gram, is in this treatise called an oblong. 

We subjoin here the exercises which this plan suggests, in 
due order : 

1. The children take the pieces which the teacher has cut out, 
one after the other, and find out to what hole they fit. 

2. The teacher herself fits those pieces into the holes from 
which they have been taken, and asks what figure they represent. 
Why ? Count the sides, and corners, or angles. 



FORM. FIRST STEP. 67 

3. She then may tell them to bring her a piece representing a 
circle, a five-sided figure, a four-sided figure, &c. 

4. Finally, she bids them look at the objects in the room, and 
find out which of them has a triangular surface, or one which is 
four-sided, circular, five, six-sided, &c. 

4. Application of the last exercise to Drawing. 

The bearing of this last exercise to drawing is so obvious, 
that we shall bring it in as a part of the lesson. 

The teacher proposes to draw a window, and asks them what 
kind of lines will represent it ? "What kind of figure ? (They 
will probably refer to the oblong.) Then she herself begins to 
draw, always asking whether the class knows what part of the 
window, what edge, corner, &c, she is drawing. After the draw- 
ing is completed, she may call the children out, and, pointing to 
different parts of the window, bid the children point to the analo- 
gous parts of the drawing. 

N. B. — Although the terms horizontal, vertical, and oblique, 
have not been developed at this step, the children's meaning will 
be sufficiently clear in speaking of lines going downward, to the 
right, left, sloping lines, &c. 

DRAWING OF A HOUSE. 

It need not be remarked that drawings of this kind apply 
mostly to the frontispiece of objects, and do not include vanishing 
surfaces, which represent thickness. 

The teacher again may ask what figure they think would 
represent the front of a house, the door, the windows, &c. What 
figure do they think would represent the roof? The children 
may possibly find that the one they have called "boat-shaped" 



would best represent it ; if not, the teacher may first show some 
wrong figures, till she hits the right one, which will probably re- 
ceive the approval of the children. 



68 FOKM. — SECOND STEP. 

Other objects that might be drawn by the teacher under the 
direction of the children, are : a box, a door, a secretary, a chest 
of drawers, a clock, &c. 

Although the children are not, at this step, supposed to draw 
themselves, the training they receive in regard to form, &c, will 
be invaluable. The real starting point for children to draw, is by 
means of the inventive drawing. 



SECOND STEP. 

1. Directions of the Straight Line. 

For the sake of the recapitulation of one of the previous ex- 
ercises, the teacher may draw a curved line on the blackboard, and 
ask what kind of a line it is. Why do you call it a curved line ? 
She then may umw a vertical, horizontal, and oblique line, and 
ask to what kind of lines they belong. They are straight lines. 
But can you see any difference in the direction of the lines ? 
The children undoubtedly see some difference, although they may 
not be able to state it clearly. 

In order to develop this subject in a visible and tangible man- 
ner, the teacher may place a stick or pointer vertically against the 
wall or the blackboard, and ask, What do you see ? How is the 
pointer situated ? It stands against the wall. And now {let- 
ting the stick fall to the ground ) ? It lies on the floor. And 
now {leaning it toward the ivall, inclining it to the right) ? It 
leans against the wall. 

The teacher then calls upon one of the class to come forward, 
and draw, by means of a line, the stick as it looks when standing. 
Another child is called to draw the stick as it appears when lying 
on the floor ; and a third to represent the stick leaning against the 
wall. Is this drawing exactly right ? Some say, The stick in- 
clines more than the drawing indicates. To which side does the 
stick incline ? Yes ; to the right. And now ? To the left. Let 
some of the children come forward, and draw it as it appears 
now. 

After the several lines representing the stick in a standing, 



FOKM. SECOND STEP. 69 

lying, and inclined position, are thus made on the blackboard, the 
teacher may point to one of the lines — for instance to the vertical — 
asking what name they would give to this line. A standing, up- 
right line, &c. She then gives them the name which is commonly 
applied to lines of this class in drawing, viz., vertical, which she 
spells, writes on the board, and makes the children repeat. No 
further definition is necessary, such as are often give in books, and 
which are mostly beyond the child's experience. Nevertheless, 
for purposes of drawing, or in mechanics, an accurate standard for 
measuring the vertical direction becomes very desirable. For this 
purpose the teacher may attach to the end of a string a weight, 
and hold it suspended before the class. "What line does this string 
describe ? Yes ; a vertical line, and in so perfect a manner that 
we may use it to measure the vertical lines on the blackboard, or 
elsewhere, as a carpenter or mason measures vertical objects or 
their edges by means of something very much like this, which he 
calls a plummet. Let a child come and make some vertical lines 
on the blackboard. Are they exactly right ? "Who thinks they 
are ? Let us decide it with the plummet. 

The teacher next makes the children examine the horizontal 
line, and asks whether they have a name for it. She then tells 
them that instead of flat, or even, the word horizontal is used in 
speaking of lines. In order to reconcile them to this new name, 
she may ask them whether they ever stood at the shore of the 
ocean or some great lake ; whether they ever observed a line 
where the sky and the water seem to meet. She then tells them 
that this line is called " horizon," and asks which of the lines 
on the board the horizon seems to resemble most in regard to 
direction. 

Lastly, she inquires for the name they would give the oblique 
line. If they call it sloping or slanting, she may tell them that 
these words are sometimes used, but that the name "oblique" is 
generally preferred when applied to lines. The teacher must take 
care not to reject unconditionally the names which the children 
may give to these lines, since they are generally correct when 
applied to things or objects. 

A recapitulation of the lesson may be had as follows : — 



70 FOEM. — SECOND STEP. 

1. The teacher points to the lines on the blackboard, and 
requires their names. 

2. She gives the name, and requires the children to draw them, 
either on the blackboard, or on their own slates. In the latter 
case she would do well to vary the exercises by saying, Draw four 
vertical lines of the same length ; five horizontal lines, beginning 
with a short one, and making each successive one a little longer ; 
six oblique lines, inclining to the right ; seven oblique lines, in- 
clining to the left, &c. 

3. She then requires them to point out objects in the room 
that have a vertical, horizontal, and oblique direction, either as a 
whole, or considering their edges only. 

2. Angles. 

We have already considered how angles are formed. We 
will only remark here, that a pair of scissors or shears are well 
calculated to illustrate angles ; and the fact that their size depends 
on the width of the opening, and not on the length of the lines, 
or, in case of the instruments, on the length of the blades. 

In order to illustrate the three different kinds of angles, let the 
teacher present to the class a knife with a straight edge, when 
questions like the following may be asked : — The teacher {open- 
ing the knife half-way) asks, How much did I open this knife ? 
Trace the angle which it describes. After shutting it a little, she 
asks, And what is its opening now ? Yes ; less than before. 
And now ? More than at first. (Shutting it entirely) : And 
now ? ( Opening it entirely) : And now ? What can you say of 
the angles in the last two cases ? There were no angles. 

A scholar is then required to draw the angle which was repre- 
sented by the knife when it was half open. He can give it, of 
course, the opening he thinks most appropriate, by guess or other- 
wise. It will, however, generally be found that the child's practi- 
cal sense will suggest to him that an angle like the one he is re- 
quired to draw is most easily made by erecting a vertical line upon 
the end of a horizontal one. In that case, the name and following 
definition may be given : A right angle is formed by drawing a 



FORM. SECOND STEP. 71 

Vertical line from the end of a horizontal one. Let the children 
repeat this, and try to execute the right angle according to the 
direction given. 

Now draw the angle which is represented by the knife when 
it is less lhan half open. What did we call the angle you drew 
before ? What can you say of the one you have just drawn ? 
Yes ; it is smaller than the right angle. Now I will tell you : an 
angle which is smaller or less than a right angle, is called an acute 
angle. Repeat this. 

Now draw this angle which is represented by the knife more 
than half open. How is the angle you have drawn, when com- 
pared to the right angle ? Greater than the right angle. Now 
I will give you its name : an angle which is greater than a 
right angle, is called an obtuse angle. Repeat this. 

The teacher may finally present to the class a knife with a long 
blade, together with a smaller one, both half open, and ask, 
What angles do both of these blades describe ? Right angles. 
Which is the greater of the two right angles ? They are alike. 
Why ? Because the blades are both half open, or because they 
are equally open. Then repeat : Angles are alike when their 
openings are the same. All right angles are equal. 

Exercises. — 1. The teacher draws promiscuously a certain 
number of angles of different kinds on the board, some of them 
hardly discernible from right angles, and requires the class to name 
them. 

2. She tells them to draw any kind of angle she describes, as, 
for instance, an acute angle with a very small opening, another 
with a wide opening, &c. 

3. She asks them to point out right, acute, or obtuse angles, 
as formed by objects they see about them. 

3. Perpendicular Lines. 

Although the children have hitherto been encouraged to form 
their right angles by the combination of a vertical line with hori- 
zontal ones, it will be necessary to generalize the idea. For this 
purpose the teacher may hold up horizontally a slate, and ask 



72 FORM. SECOND STEP. 

what angles they perceive on it. Then she may turn the slate so 
that one corner falls lower than the other, thus : 




and ask whether the angle they see there is still a right angle. 
What kind of lines form it ? Yes ; slanting lines. Then let 
them draw an angle in the above position. A child does so on 
the blackboard, and the teacher appeals to the class to determine 
whether the angle is right. As there may be a difference of opin- 
ion, one of the lines may be prolonged, thus : 




"What do you see now? Two angles. Where situated? On 
each side of one of the lines. What can you say of these 
angles ? What about the size of their openings ? (This may be 
ascertained by measuring, at an equal distance from the point of 
meeting, across the opening of the angle.) If this point is settled, 
the teacher tells them : When one line meets another, so that the 
angles on each side are equal to each other, such angles are right 
angles. And again : Any line which forms a right angle with 
another, is said to be perpendicular to the other line. 

Exercises. — 1. The teacher bids one child draw on the 
board a line in any direction, and then to draw another line per- 
pendicular to the first. If it should be done incorrectly, then the 
teacher must apply the test suggested above. The questions to 
be asked in such a case are : What kind of angle is this ? Yes ; 
an acute angle. And this? An obtuse angle. Can the line 
drawn be a perpendicular ? Why not ? 

2. The class is then required to point out edges of objects that 
are perpendicular to other edges. Pointing to the blackboard, for 
instance, the teacher may ask, What can you say of these two 



FORM. SECOND BTEP. 73 

edges with, reference to each other ? Is it also vertically placed 
on that edge ? Then is it both perpendicular and vertical ? 

Eemark. — As the term perpendicular is frequently used in the 
place of vertical, it may be well to make the class acquainted with 
this fact ; without, however, recommending it, since it may lead to 
a confusion of ideas. For instance, pointing to a sloping edge of 
a desk, the teacher may ask, What kind of edge is that placed 
under it ? A vertical one. Is it perpendicular to the sloping 
one ? It is not. 

4. Triangles. 

The teacher draws a right, an obtuse, and an acute angle on 
the board, and then shuts the opening of each by a third line. 
She then asks, W hat do you call these figures now ? Of how 
many lines or sides are they composed ? "What can you say as to 
their resemblance or difference ? Point out any difference be- 
tween them ; for instance, between the first and second. In the 
first there is a right angle, which is not in the second ; in the 
second there is an obtuse angle, which is not in the first. What 
can you say of the angles in the third of these triangles ? They 
are all acute angles. See if you can find any acute angles in the 
first and second figures. How many are there ? Point them out. 

The teacher then may tell them that the names given to these 
triangles depend on the kind of angles they have. The one which 
has a right angle in connection with two acute angles, is called a 
right-angled triangle. The other, which has an obtuse and two 
acute angles, is called an obtuse-angled triangle. The third, which 
has three acute angles, is called an acute-angled triangle. Repeat 
this. 

Exercises. — 1. The teacher may draw any number of trian- 
gles of the above kinds, and require the children to give their 
names. 

2. She requires them to draw any of these triangles according 
to dictation. 

3. She bids them to point out triangular faces of one or the 
other kind on objects they see in the room. 

4 



74: FOKM. — SECOND STEP. 

5. Continuation of Triangles. 

The triangles in the former exercises were classed by compar- 
ing their angles. The teacher now proposes to class them by- 
comparing their sides. "Who can make a triangle having two of 
its sides equal, and the other of a different length ? Who can 
make a triangle having all of its sides unequal ? Who can make 
a triangle having its three sides equal ? The pupils, in attempting 
to make these, may possibly fail. In this case the teacher draws 
the figures for them on the blackboard, and shows them that the 
angles must have a certain opening, to make the construction pos- 
sible. The teacher then gives the names : 

Fig. 1 is called an isosceles triangle. 
" 2 " scalene " 

" 3 " equilateral (equal-sided, regular) triangle. 

After this the children give a definition of each. In the recapitu- 
lation the same order of exercises is to be observed as before. 

6. Parallel Lines. 

The teacher, by way of introduction, and with reference to 
one of the last exercises, may inquire of the class whether they 
could construct a triangle with two right angles in it ? In attempt- 
ing to do it, they would produce a figure similar to 



Can you do it? "Why not? The perpendicular lines will not 
meet. Supposing I lengthen them, what then ? Why is it ne- 
cessary they should meet, to make a triangle ? Let us now ex- 
amine those lines which will not meet, however much they may 
be lengthened. What line measures the distance between them ? 
Supposing I measure the distance higher up, what then ? How 
does this distance compare with that at the bottom ? What would 
be the result should we measure it in other places ? Yes ; we 
find that these lines are the same distance apart at every point. 



FORM. — SECOND STEP. 75 

Now I will tell you, that lines which will never meet, however 
far they may be lengthened, and which always have the same 
distance between them, are called parallel lines. Repeat this. 
Now draw some parallel lines. "With what instrument do you 
think I could make any number of parallel lines with much 
ease and correctness ? Where do you find these lines ? On writ- 
ing paper. Where else ? Make on your slates five vertical paral- 
lel lines. Now five vertical lines not parallel. Is this possible? 
It is not. Then say, All vertical lines must be parallel. Draw 
now six horizontal parallel lines. Draw six horizontal lines not paral- 
lel. Is this possible ? Then say, Horizontal lines must be paral- 
lel. Now draw five oblique parallel lines to the left ; five oblique 
parallel lines to the right ; five oblique lines not parallel. Is this 
possible ? Then say, Oblique lines may be or may not be parallel. 
Are there any parallel lines in a triangle ? In a four-sided figure ? 
This latter point we propose to consider more particularly in the 
next lesson. 

7. Four-sided Figures, or Quadrilaterals. 

As the children have, in the preceding exercises, obtained 
some insight into the principle of classifying geometrical figures, 
it is proposed that they should, in this exercise, perform the classi- 
fication themselves, under the direction of the teacher. For this 
purpose, draw promiscuously on the blackboard the six different 
kinds of quadrilaterals ; as, for instance,* 1, the trapezium ; 2, the 
square ; 3, the trapezoid ; 4, the rectangle ; 5, the rhomboid ; 
6, the rhomb. It need hardly be stated, that the teacher must 
refer to these figures by their numbers only, until their names are 
given. 

She now may ask, In which of these figures do you see two 
pairs of parallel lines — that is, two lines running parallel in one 
direction, and two running parallel in another? In figs. 2, 4, 
5, 6. What can you say of the length of their opposite sides ? 
They are equal. 

The teacher then selects the figures just named, and draws 

* For these figures, see Chart of Forms. 



76 FOKM. SECOND STEP. 

them on another line, and says, Four-sided figures, having all their 
opposite sides parallel and equal, are called parallelograms. Re- 
peat the definition. After this, she asks the children "which 
of these parallelograms bear a strong resemblance to each other ? 
Figs. 2 and 4. In what particular are they alike ? They have 
both four right angles. In what are they different, if you compare 
their sides ? Fig. 2 has all its sides equal, and fig. 4 has two 
opposite sides shorter than the other two. Is there any resem- 
blance between the other two parallelograms, figs. 5 and 6 ? 
Yes. In what are they alike ? In what are they different ? 

The teacher then tells them, that if they will make a full de- 
scription of each figure she points out, she will give them its 
proper name. What is this figure ? (fig. 2). A parallelogram, 
of which all the angles are right angles, and the sides equal. The 
teacher gives the name square, and requires the class to repeat 
the definition, with the name attached to it. 

What is this figure? (fig. 1). A parallelogram which has 
four right angles, and two opposite sides shorter than the other 
two. The teacher gives the name oblong. 

What is this figure ? (fig. 6). A parallelogram having two 
opposite angles acute, and the others obtuse, and all the sides 
equal. The name rhomb is then given. 

What is this figure ? (fig. 5). A parallelogram having two 
opposite angles acute and two obtuse, and two opposite sides 
shorter than the other two. The name rhomboid is then given. 

There remain now only figs. 1 and 3, which are not classed 
among the parallelograms. The teacher tells the class that in the 
description of these two figures, neither the angles nor the length 
or equality of the sides are considered, but simply the fact of their 
having any sides parallel or not. She then bids them to describe 
these figures accordingly, after which she will give their names. 
Pointing to fig. 1, she asks, What do you see ? A four-sided 
figure, which has but one pair -of parallel sides. The name 
trapezoid is given. 

What do you see here ? A four-sided figure having none of 
its sides parallel. In order to impress these figures in somewhat 
modified forms, the teacher may ask whether they could make a 



FORM. — SECOND STEP. „ 77 

trapezoid with two right angles, or with two lines, or even three 
lines equal ; — a trapezium with two adjacent sides equal, and hav- 
ing all kinds of angles, right, acute, and obtuse. 

Exercises. — 1. The teacher draws a number of different four- 
sided figures on the board, and asks for their names, requiring, if 
necessary, definitions. 

2. She bids the class draw the figures according to her de- 
scription or classification. 

3. Slie then requires the pupils to point out objects in the 
room, the faces of which are squares, rectangles, rhombs, rhom- 
boids, &c. 

N. B. — There will be no lade of objects presenting rectangular 
faces, such as panes of glass, boards, walls, tables, steps, boxes, 
houses, &c. In order to supply to some extent a deficiency in 
rhombical surfaces, an intelligent teacher may present some min- 
erals, in their crystallized shape, which will moreover give them 
an idea of some regular solids, not often found amongst the works 
of man. 

8. Polygons. 

As the children are already acquainted with the meaning of 
five, six, seven, eight-sided figures, it only remains to give them 
the names by which they are generally known in geometry, and 
which have at least the advantage of being shorter. Let the 
figures be drawn on the blackboard by the teacher. 

A five-sided figure is called a pentagon. 
A six-sided " " a hexagon. 

A seven-sided " " a heptagon. 

An eight-sided " " an octagon. 

Let the teacher question the children as to the number of 
sides, angles, and corners in these various figures, and lead them 
to discover that it is always the same in each. 

In order to illustrate the original meaning of polygon, the 
teacher might draw on the board a figure with a great number of 
sides, and ask the class how many sides it has. If the children 
are puzzled to tell exactly the number of sides, she may ask 



78 FORM. — SECOND STEP. 

whether it has few or many sides ? It has many sides. It 
might therefore be called a many-sided figure. Polygon means 
the same thing. She may further state, that any figure including 
the triangle is classed among the polygons. The definition is now 
given : A polygon is a figure enclosed by three, or more than 
three sides. 

In order to develop the idea regular, the teacher draws a regu- 
lar polygon, and asks, What can you say of its different sides and 
angles ? Yes ; they are equal. A polygon with its sides and 
angles equal, is called a regular polygon. Is the square a regular 
polygon ? Is the rhomb ? "Why not ? 

In order to develop the idea of diagonal, let the teacher draw 
a line through any of the above figures from one corner to the 
other, and ask what she has done. The teacher may tell them : 
A line drawn from one corner to another is called a diagonal. Re- 
peat this. Can any diagonals be drawn in a triangle ? How 
many in a four-sided figure ? in a pentagon ? hexagon ? heptagon ? 
octagon ? The amount will prove to be respectively, two, five, 
nine, fourteen, twenty diagonals. 

9. The Circle. 

The circle is mentioned here last amongst the inclosed spaces, 
although it is in one sense the simplest of all, and the one which 
is easiest recognized by children. Yet the perfection of its form, 
and the reflections that are called forth by it, seem to place it on 
a somewhat higher step. 

In order to show the construction of the circle, as well as some 
of its properties, let the teacher draw, by means of a chalk at- 
tached to one end of a string, a circular line. "What have I been 
drawing ? A round line, a ring, a circle. Let us call the whole 
figure a circle, and the surrounding line " the circumference." Can 
you tell me where the middle of the circle is situated ? Where 
you held the other end of the string. (The teacher makes a dot 
at the point indicated.) How do you know that this is the middle ? 
What can you say of its distance from the different points in the 
circumference ? It is the same distance from every point. Why 
must it be so ? Let us now call the point in the middle the centre 



FOKM. SECOND STEP. 79 

of a circle. "What is the centre ? Give a definition of it. If the 
centre be equally distant from all points of the circumference, what 
must the circumference be in regard to the centre ? Make a defi- 
nition of the circumference. But what is the circle itself, as a 
space ? Describe it fully. A circle is a space surrounded by a 
line, called its circumference ; this line is equally distant at all 
points from a point called the centre of the circle. 

"When the circle was constructed on the blackboard, by what 
has the distance between the centre and the circumference been 
measured ? By the string. Let us now imagine the string to be 
a fine which, as the thread is moved round, can assume various 
positions. The teacher draws several of these lines, and calls one 
of them a radius ; several of them, radii. What is a radius ? W'hat 
can you say of the length of the radii? Then say : All the radii 
of one circle are equal. 

The teacher then may make two radii going in the same direc- 
tion, and ask how many lines they form. They form but one line. 
Describe that line — where it begins, through what point it passes, 
and where it ends. It is drawn from one point of the circum- 
ference, passes through the centre, and terminates in an opposite 
point of the circumference. Let us call a line of this kind " a 
diameter." What is a diameter ? How many times the length 
of a radius ? Can we draw more than one diameter ? How ? 
What can you say of the length of the different diameters ? 

As it is not proposed here to give a definition of all the parts 
of divisions of the circle, we limit ourselves to some of the most 
important ones. As, for instance, A diameter cuts a circle into 
two equal parts, each of which is called a semicircle. Two diame- 
ters, intersecting at right angles, divide the circumference into four 
equal parts, called quadrants. Any part of the circle is called an 
arc* The teacher may show them by what an easy and grace- 
ful movement an arc is produced, by simply swinging the arm. 
Performing the same movement on the blackboard, with chalk in 
hand, the children will see the arc arise. Does this arc belong to 
a small or large circle ? Where do you think its centre would be ? 

* For these figures, see Chart of Forms. 



80 FORM. — THIKD STEP. 

Is the arc which belongs to a large circle, more or less bent than 
the one which belongs to a small circle ? 



THIRD STEP. 

1. Solids. 

It is perhaps premature to suppose that even in these days 
of educational progress, a box. of solids will be considered as 
necessary an appendage of the school room, as alphabetical cards 
or a map of the country. If it should not be found there, it is cer- 
tainly an easy task for the teacher, as well as the pupils, to manu- 
facture the most important solids, such as the cylinder, the cone, 
and a number of pyramids and prisms, from pasteboard. As the 
word " solid " will be often used in these exercises, the teacher 
will do well to remark, at the outset, that every extension in 
length, breadth, and thickness, is called " a solid," which word 
must not be confounded with the quality "solid," which would, 
for instance, never be attributed to water, while nobody will deny 
that any volume of water has length, breadth, and thickness, and 
is therefore a solid, like all other objects. 

2. The Sphere. 

As the solid which is presented to the class is already known 
to them under tbe name of ball, the teacher gives the more geo- 
metrical name of sphere ; the object of this lesson being to make 
them aware of its properties. "Where is the surface of the sphere ? 
Mark a point on the surface, and one directly opposite on the 
other side. Supposing I pass a string or a thread from one point 
over the other, till it returns to the first point, what line does it 
describe ? Now if I cut through the sphere, along the circular 
line described by the thread, how would the sphere be divided ? 
(This operation ought to be performed, or, at any rate, illustrated.) 
These half spheres are called hemispheres. How are they called ? 
"What can you say of the faces of the hemisphere ? Of what 
shape is it ? How can you find the centre of such a circle ? 



FOKM. THIRD STEP. 81 

Eight ; by drawing a diameter, and marking a point in its middle. 
Suppose we put the two parts together again, so as to form a 
sphere, what part of the sphere does this point represent ? If a 
great many lines were drawn from one point of the surface to an 
opposite one, what would they all pass through ? What would 
such lines be called ? Yes, diameters. Are these diameters equal ? 
(This might be shown by inserting the sphere in various positions 
between two vertical sticks, placed at a distance equal to the diame- 
ter of the solid.) If diameters are equal, what can you say of the 
radii ? Why ? Where is one point of each of the radii situated ? 
On the surface. And the other ? In the centre. What can we 
say in regard to the distance of every point of the surface from 
the centre ? That it is equally removed from the centre. Now 
give a definition of a sphere. A sphere is a solid, bounded by a 
rounded surface, every point of which is equally distant from a 
point inside, called the centre of a sphere. If a sphere becomes 
flattened on two opposite sides, it is called a spheroid. This can 
be illustrated by a ball made of India-rubber. Many objects in 
nature have the shape of a spheroid. Now name a great many 
objects which are either spherical or spheroidical. Apples, 
oranges, peaches, cherries, many berries, raindrops, soap bubbles, 
&c. Do you know what form the earth has ? If the children do 
not know it, a globe may be produced. Of what shape is the 
egg? Is it exactly like a sphere or an orange ? Then we will call 
its shape egg-shaped, or, what means the same, oval. 

3. The Cylinder. 

Describe the object before you. What do you see on its sur- 
face ? Two circular plane faces, and a rounded face between them. 
If you wanted to make this solid stand, how would you place it ? 
On one of its plane faces. Now I will tell you that the face on 
which it is supposed to stand is called its base. How many bases 
has the solid ? We will compare these bases one with the other. 
What can you say of them ? Yes, they are equal. And what 
more can you say of them ? They are parallel. If the children 
do not readily give these answers, the teacher may draw them 
4* 



82 FOEM. — THIED STEP. 

out by putting each end upon the board, and drawing a mark 
around it. Compare the circles thus made. The idea of a paral- 
lel may be brought out by placing objects upon the table parallel 
to each other. The name of the solid is cylinder. Who can de- 
scribe it ? The cylinder is a solid, having two circular bases, 
which are parallel and equal, and a rounded face between. 
Now name some objects that have a cylindrical form, as hats, 
stovepipes, tumblers, rolls, rulers, pillars, &c. 

4. The Cone. 

Describe the surface of this object. It has a circular plane 
base, and a curved face. Can you tell me the difference between 
this circular face and the circular face of the cylinder ? Yes, it 
ends in a point. Does it end suddenly in a point, or does it be- 
come narrower gradually ? Now we will use the word tapering, 
instead of "becoming narrower," and call the sharp point at the 
top "apex." The name of the solid is cone. Who can describe 
it ? A cone is a solid, having a plane circular base, and a curved 
face tapering toward a point, called its apex. Name some objects 
which are of a conical shape. The trunks of many trees, carrots, 
sugar loaves, the peaks of many mountains, &c. 

Remarks. — The teacher may show that by cutting off the top 
of a cone, the remaining piece, which is called a " truncated cone," 
presents a form which is common to some objects, as, for instance, 
coal scuttles, pails, &c. 

5. Pyramids. 

Out of several different solids on the table, including a variety 
of pyramids, let the children select those already considered, and 
then ask them if there are any other solids that resemble these. 
Let some one come forward and select these solids, and place them 
by the side of the one they most resemble. The children may 
probably choose those terminating in a point, and place them near 
the cone. In what do these solids resemble the cone ? In what 
are they different ? They have only plane faces, while the cone 



FOKM. THIRD STEP. 83 

has a curved one. "What can you say of their bases ? "What is 
the base of the cylinder ? A circle. What is the base of this 
solid ? A triangle. Of this ? A square. Of this ? A penta- 
gon, &c. Supposing we wished to speak of all their bases to- 
gether, what could we call them ? Polygons. If necessary to 
bring out this answer, the teacher can refer them to the plane 
figures they have called polygons. The teacher should always be 
careful not to answer for children questions which they may be 
led to answer for themselves. Now look at the faces of these 
pyramids. What can you say of their number ? They do not 
have the same number. What can you say of their form ? They 
are alike in form. What is their form ? Yes ; they are all tri- 
angles. How does the number of triangles on each compare with 
the number of sides to the base ? Yes ; there is the same num- 
ber of them. Now I will tell you, that all solids of this descrip- 
tion are called pyramids. Can you describe a pyramid ? A 
pyramid is a solid, having a polygon for its base, and as many tri- 
angles tapering toward one point (the apex) as there are sides in 
the base. 

The teacher has to add, that according to the number of sides 
in the base, these solids are called "triangular," "quadrangular,'' 
"pentagonal," "hexagonal," &c, pyramids. 

Exercises. — 1. Select a pentagonal pyramid. Tell how many 
faces, corners, edges, angles, &c, you find in it. 

2. Think of a hexagonal pyramid. Tell how many faces, cor- 
ners, edges, angles, &c, you think it has. 

3. Point out as many objects as you can, the shape of which 
is like a pyramid. 

Remark. — The teacher may make here an allusion to the most 
ancient of all monuments, the pyramids of Egypt, and demon- 
strate how difficult it is to overthrow a pyramind resting on a 
broad base. 

6. Prisms. 

The several kinds of prisms to be considered in the lesson, 
being placed on the table, the teacher asks, Which of the solids 



84 FOKM. — THIRD STEP. 

on the table resembles somewhat a cylinder ? The children will 
probably select a many-sided prism, and the teacher can lead them 
to consider how each of the prisms might become a cylinder, by 
rolling it over many times, thus wearing away its edges. In what 
are these solids different from the cylinder ? They have only 
plane faces. If you wished to make them stand, on which faces 
would you place them? And what do we call the faces on 
which objects stand ? "What is the form of their bases ? They 
may be triangles, squares, rectangles, pentagons, &c. If we 
wished to speak of them all as one class, what should we say ? 
They are polygons. What can you say of the size of the two 
bases of each ? They are equal. "What more can you say of 
them ? They are parallel. Of what shape are their surrounding 
faces ? They are all oblongs. But I see some here which are 
rhomboids. Let one of the children select the rhomboids. To 
what class do both oblongs and rhomboids belong ? To the 
class of parallelograms. Then what shall we call all the sur- 
rounding faces ? Parallelograms. How does the number of faces 
in each compare with the number of sides in each of their bases ? 
It is equal to the number of their sides. Now I will tell you, that 
solids of this kind are called prisms. Who can describe a prism ? 

It may be necessary to lead the children to this definition 
at first, by repeating some questions ; as, What did you tell me 
^bout the bases of these prisms ? They are equal. And what 
more did you say of them ? They are parallel. Now tell me in 
one sentence what you can say of their bases. Their bases are 
equal and parallel. What did we say of their surrounding faces ? 
Their surrounding faces are parallelograms. Now describe in one 
sentence a prism. The prism is a solid, having for its bases 
equal and parallel polygons, whilst the surrounding faces are 
parallelograms. 

The teacher may add that these prisms have particular names, 
according to the number of sides in their bases. The teacher 
holds up a triangular prism, and questions the children as to the 
number of sides in its base. What then may you say of the 
form of its base ? Yes ; it is a triangle, or we may say it is tri- 
angular. Then what kind of a prism may we call this ? What 



FORM. — THIRD STEP. 85 

did we call the pyramid that had a triangular base ? The children 
will now call it a triangular prism, and will name the remaining 
pyramids, as quadrangular, pentagonal, hexagonal, &c. The 
quadrangular prism is of such importance, that it has been desig- 
nated by one word, paralleiopipedon, to which the cube belongs. 

Exercises. — 1. Describe a parallelopipedon ; the number and 
kind of its faces ; how many angles, edges, corners, &c. 

2. Imagine a heptagonal prism. Describe the number and 
kind of its faces ; how many angles, edges, corners, &c. 

3. Name objects in and out of the room, which have the form 
of a prism. 



OBJECTS. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

For many years the sentiment has been gaining ground in 
this country, that there is something to do in our schools beside 
simply teaching children to " read, write, and cipher." It is now 
very generally acknowledged that an acquaintance with Nature, 
in her varied forms, is also an important educational attainment, 
and that a knowledge of things does in its natural order precede a 
knowledge of words. As a result of this conviction, " Lessons 
on Objects" have been introduced into very many of the best 
schools of the country. 

These lessons, however, have not always been given in a man- 
ner best calculated to awaken and cultivate the early faculties of 
children, and prepare them for the study of Nature. 

These first exercises with children should be of a character cal- 
culated to quicken perception, and to cultivate close and accurate 
observation and expression. For the teacher to tell the child what 
she knows about objects, is only to burden the memory, discour- 
age investigation, and weaken the perceptive faculties. The effort 
should rather be to lead the child to discover for himself and then 
properly to communicate the result of his observations. It is with 
this idea prominently in view that the following sketches and 
series of lessons have been drawn up. 

The truly successful teacher will rather use these as models, as 
conveying an idea of the general plan and method to be pursued, 
and will not confine herself either to the subjects or exact method 
here laid down. Too much importance, however, cannot be 



OBJECTS. 87 

attached to the teacher's having a definite plan and aim in each 
lesson. No teacher should ever go before her class without an 
exact sketch of the lesson she proposes to give. Without such 
preparation, the lesson had better never be given. 

In the First Step, the Perceptive Faculty is exercised. In the 
earlier lessons the object is considered as a whole ; in the later, as 
possessing parts — the recognition of these requiring more minute 
and accurate exercise of perception. In all the early steps, one 
important aim is the formation of a vocabulary. 

In the Second Step, the Perceptive and also the Conceptive 
Faculties are exercised. In the earlier lessons the object is con- 
sidered as possessing familiar qualities ; in the later lessons, as pos- 
sessing some important quality which other objects also possess. 

In the Third Step, the exercise of the Perceptive Faculties 
serves as the basis of the lesson, the superstructure of which ad- 
dresses the Conceptive, and especially the Reasoning Faculties. 
The object is considered in detail, all its parts noted, and all its 
qualities, except such as are altogether beyond the range of the 
children's experience. Especially do children consider the uses 
of the object, and the adaptation of structure, material, or quali- 
ties to these. 

In this Step they often consider two objects at a time, com- 
paring and contrasting them. A little information is often given ; 
still it is not the aim of the teacher to tell them what they can 
learn from books, but rather to form correct and thorough habits 
of observation, and develop power of thought. 

In the Fourth Step, the Faculty of Generalization is exercised, 
in addition to the other faculties before named. Objects are con- 
sidered in classes : when a single object is taken, it is with refer- 
ence to art, manufacture, &c. 



88 



OBJECTS. 



FIRST STEP. 

I.— Objects Named, Arranged, &c. 

1. Sketch of a Lesson on a Teapot, Milk Pitcher, Cup, and Saucer. 

1. The teacher should first ask the children if they have ever 
seen such things as these, when they usually see them, and what 
each of them is called. 

2. The teacher calls upon a child to touch the teapot, asking 
the others if he has rightly done so. The same may be done with 
each of the objects. 

3. The teacher herself touches one of the objects, and desires 
all the children who know its name to raise their hands ; one child 
is afterward selected to apply the name. The same to be done 
with each of the objects. 

4. The teacher to remove the objects out of sight, and then 
ask the children what things she has been showing them ; this 
test should be repeated till they can correctly mention all the 
objects from memory. 

5. The teacher may require a child to place the objects in a 
certain order ; as the teapot in the middle, the milk pitcher before 
it, and the cup in the saucer behind it ; the other children saying 
whether it is correctly done : they may then be desired to place 
all of them in a row. The teacher may then put the saucer upon 
the cup, and ask the children if that is its proper place, and then 
call a child to place it as it ought to be, and also to say what are 
the proper positions of the cup and of the saucer. 

6. The teacher, having arranged the objects in a certain order, 
desiring the children to observe how they are placed, is to remove 
them, and call upon some child to replace them in the same order ; 
they may then be placed differently, and the same test be applied. 

7. The lesson to conclude with a little talk about the objects — 
their number and names ; their uses ; what is put into the teapot, 
what comes out of it ; what is put into the milk pitcher ; how the 
cup is used, &c. 

Supposing this book to be used by the Educational Teacher, 



OBJECTS. 89 

or Teacher of Method, in the instruction of a class of students, it 
is of the utmost importance that they should be exercised in draw- 
ing up sketches corresponding with the patterns given. 

After examination of the above sketch, the students should 
construct a similar lesson, on plate, knife, fork, spoon, and glass. 



2. Sketch of a Lesson on a Basket, a Book, and a Slate. 

1. See that the children know these objects and their names, 
and can themselves apply the proper name to each object. 

2. Kemove the basket, book, and slate, one by one, and after 
each has been taken away, call upon the children to say which it 
is ; then take all three away, and let them say what the three 
things which have been taken away are, and how they were 
placed before they were removed. 

3. Call upon some of the children to place the several objects 
as directed, thus : the basket in the middle, the books nearer to 
the window, and the slate on the opposite side. Tell them to 
observe how they are placed, and then, removing them, desire one 
of the children again to place them as they were. 

4. Next talk about the uses of these objects. How are bas- 
kets used, and by whom ? For what purposes do the children 
themselves use them ? "What have they seen their mothers do 
with them ? Place some books in a basket in a neat and orderly 
manner, and then desire a child to do the same with others ; this 
will teach them to do such things neatly and tidily. Then ask 
them what people do with books. Read a line or two in a book, 
and ask what has been done, and if they would like to be able 
thus to read. Then talk about the slate, by whom they have seen 
slates used, and for what purposes. 

5. Sum up the lesson by asking how many things have been 
spoken of, their names, and the ordinary use of each of them. 

Students construct corresponding lesson on shovel, poker, and 
tongs. 

Their attention should be drawn to the general plan of these 
lessons, thus: 



90 OBJECTS. 

PLAN. 

1. Teacher presents the objects ; ascertains which the children 
can name ; gives names they do not know, always touching the 
object named, requiring children to observe it, and causing the 
names to be simultaneously repeated. 

2. Teacher exercises the children on the names, by pointing 
to the objects, and letting the children name them ; then by nam- 
ing the objects, and letting, the children touch or bring them. 

The last part of the lesson will vary according to the objects 
selected. If these be plate, knife, fork, &c., the teacher will 
direct attention especially to the arrangement of the objects- — 
where they would place the plate, if they were going to set the 
table ? where the knife ? where the fork ? Tongs, poker, &c, 
candle, candlestick, &c, would be treated similarly ; and the 
arrangement of bonnet, scarf, &c, as parts of dress, show. 

In the lesson, ""Wood, Hatchet, Hammer, &c," the use of the 
tools, rather than any arrangement of them, would be exhibited. 
Terms for prominent parts, as handle, rim, lid, should be given as 
the parts are noticed by the children. 

LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR SIMILAR LESSONS. 

Plate, knife, fork, spoon, glass. 

Tongs, poker, shovel, hearth brush. 

Candle, candlestick, extinguisher, tray, snuffers. 

Bonnet, veil, scarf, gloves, parasol. 

Needle, thimble, thread, calico, scissors. 

Pen, ink, paper, blotting book, pen wiper. 

Penknife, pencil, ruler, India rubber. 

Wood, hatchet, hammer, gimlet, nail. 

Clay, stone, sponge, wool, string. 

II.— Objects for Parts. 

Including the consideration of — 

1. Names and Number of Parts. 

2. Position of Parts. 



OBJECTS. 



91 



3. Uses of Parts. 

4. Principal, distinguished from Secondary Parts. 

Any one or two of these points may be taken up in a lesson, 
which one or two will generally depend on the subject. 



1. Sketch on a Thimble, for Parts. (Pattern Lesson.) 

Uses of parts. 
Names of parts. 



I. — A thimble has 
a crown, a shield, cells, 
a border, and a rim. 



II. — 1. The crown, 
so called because it is 
the top part of the 
thimble. 



2. The shield is so 
called because it keeps 
the finger from being 
hurt. 

3. The cells are so 



I. — Teacher presents a thimble. Se- 
lects a child to touch a part.* Asks the 
children to name it, and when they fail, 
gives name, which is simultaneously re- 
peated (S. R.) by the children, and writ- 
ten on the board (W. B.). Teacher se- 
lects second child to touch a second part, 
and proceeds as before, until all the parts 
are distinguished and named. 

Children read the names from the board. 
Teacher erases these, and children give 
them again in order from the top to the 
bottom of the thimble. 

II. — 1. Teacher exercises the children 
on the appropriateness of the names. 
Child to touch the crown. Why the 
upper part is so called. What crowns 
are. Where they are worn. A part of 
the head is called a crown. Teacher bids 
a child touch crown, and then touch some 
higher part. Why he cannot comply with 
the latter command. The top part of the 
head is called the crown, and a part of the 
thimble is called the crown, because it is 
the top part. 

2. A child to touch the shield. Teach- 
er shows the picture of a soldier with a 
sword and shield. Children state use of 
the sword — of the shield, and why this 
part of the thimble is so called. 

3. Child to touch the cells; show 



92 



OBJECTS. 



called because they re- 
semble the cells of the 
honeycomb. 

4. The border is so 
called because it is an 
ornament near the 
edge. 



honeycomb and its cells. Children say 
why the holes in the thimble are called 
cells also. 

4. A child to touch the border. Its 
position referred to (near the edge). Chil- 
dren mention any borders they have seen 
on any objects, as on handkerchiefs, shawls, 
&c. Where these are placed. Why peo- 
ple have borders. Why this part of the 
thimble is so called. 

5. A child to touch the only remaining 
part — the rim — and give examples of rims 
on other objects. 



Note.— Nothing is said about the inside, outside, &c, as dis- 
tinct parts. It is undesirable to mix up the consideration of geo- 
metrical with that of material parts ; it tends to confuse the chil- 
dren. Students construct sketch on " Penknife," as " Thimble." 

The Teacher of Method might next require the class of stu- 
dents to work out exercises on an apple, thus : — 

Find the matter under the heads. 
Parts found and named. 
Position of parts described. 



2. Example of Sketch on an Apple. 

Matter. — I. Parts of an apple. 

The parts of the apple are pulp, core, seeds, peel, eye, dimple, 
and stem. 

II. — Position of parts. 

The peel covers the apple. 

The pulp is inside the peel. 

The core is in the centre of the apple or pulp. 

The seeds are enclosed in the core. 

The dimple is at the base of the apple. 

The stem is at the base, and partly within the dimple. 

The eye is at the top of the apple. 



OBJECTS. 93 

Teacher of Method next requires the class to find the method 
corresponding. 

Exercise. 

Method. — I. 1. Show an apple. Get the name, and after a 
little talk about the use, where it grows, &c, desire a child to touch 
a part (the skin). Give the term peel. Children to say what part 
of the apple they like best. How we are to get at this. "Whether, 
before this is done, they can find any other part by looking at the 
outside (the speck or bud). Give the term eye (the little hole). 
Tell them there is a better name — dimple. The little dent in the 
apple is also called dimple. "What part is near the dimple ? 
(Stem.) Children name all the outside parts of the apple. 
(W. B. S. R.) 

2. Children allowed to name all the inside parts. Apple cut 
and examined, to prove whether they are right. (W. B. S. R.) 

II. — Bring out the position of the peel, by asking why they 
could not see the pulp of the apple before we cut it open. 

Position of pulp, core, and seeds brought out by direct ques- 
tions. Children led to express themselves properly, and S. R. 
Idea of base de'veloped by making the children ascertain on what 
part the apple will stand best. If necessary, remove the stem. 
Let them find the parts near the base. (The dimple and th^stem.) 
Only one part left — where is it ? Not at the base, but at the other 
end of the apple. Give the expression, opposite the base. 

Summary. — Teacher names the position by requiring children 
to fill up the ellipses by naming the parts, thus : Outside the pulp 

is . Under the peel is . In the midst of the pulp 

is . Within the core are . At the base is the 

. Partly within the dimple, and at the base, is the . 

Opposite the base is the . 



Students construct the "Penknife" as the "Apple." 

3. Sketch on a Shell. (Pattern.) 

For Names of Parts. 

Principal, distinguished from Secondary Parts. 
Position of Parts. 



94: OBJECTS. 

I.— Parts. 

1. Introductory. — Object named, where found, and of what 
use. 

2. Parts distinguished and named. Teacher directs the chil- 
dren to find the largest part of the shell. Excites interest by tell- 
ing them that they can find out the name of this part. "What they 
call the largest part of themselves. (The body.) (S. R.) : "The 
largest part of the shell is called the body." The part of shell 
next in size pointed out. Children told they can find a name for 
this also ; they must not, however, look at themselves for the 
name, but at the buildings out of doors. Set the shell on its base, 
and ask, What part of any building goes up like this ? The spire 
of a church. (S. R.) : " The next largest part of the shell is called 
the spire." Terms body and spire written on the blackboard. 

II. — 1. Children have next to find the parts of the body — 
mouth, lips, beak. Teacher gives the names, writes them on the 
board, and requires the children to say why these names are 
given. 

2. Next, children find the parts of the spire — whorls, sutures, 
and apex. Teacher gives the first and second terms. (S. R.) 
"With respect to the third term, if they have had lessons on Form, 
she bidjf them select a solid that has a part like this part of the 
shell, telling them that the same name is given to each. They 
read what is written on the board, which appears thus : — 

Mouth, ( Whorls, 

Spire, -j Sutures, 
( Apex. 



Body, -J Lips, 
Beak. 



III. — Position of Parts. 

Children led to describe the position of principal parts with 
respect to each other, and the position of secondary parts with 
respect to principal, or to each other, as may be most convenient, 
thus : — The spire is at one end of the body ; the mouth is in the 
under part of the body ; lips around the mouth ; beak proceeds 
from the mouth, and is at the end of the body opposite the spire. 
Whorls surround the spire ; sutures ■ are between the whorls ; 
apex is at the end of the spire. 



OBJECTS. 95 

If time allow, these questions should be varied, as, Where are 
the whorls with respect to the apex and the body ? or this may- 
be done in recapitulation next day. 

Summary. — Parts given from memory. Position given from 
memory, if children are quite advanced, and about ready to enter 
the next Step. 

Students finally required to construct the " Penknife," as the 
" Shell." 

Students write sketch on "Bunch of Grapes," according to the 
following heads and directions written on the blackboard : — 

4. A Bunch of Grapes. 

1. Parts found and named. (Lead children to distinguish the 
principal parts first, then the secondary.) 

2. Position of Parts. (Of the principal parts with respect to 
each other. Next take the secondary parts of the stem ; next of 
the berry.) 

"While considering the position of the principal parts with re- 
spect to each other, develop the idea of " cluster." 



Children must discover the parts for themselves, and at first 
may do so in any order, teacher putting them down in the order 
of discovery. She rearranges them in proper order, accord- 
ing to direction of children, either at once or at the close of the 
lesson. See " Sketch on the Thimble." 

It is important that children should be accustomed to recog- 
nize that there is an order ; that " any way" will not do. 

"When the ideas of principal and secondary parts have been 
developed, children may be told to find the secondary parts of 
one principal part first, then the secondary part of another prin- 
cipal part, putting them down as found. This saves time. See 
" Sketch on Shell." 

Children should be encouraged to give any names of parts 
they know, teacher supplying the rest when arbitrary ; but, when 



96 OBJECTS. 

the name is suggested by any circumstance or quality not beyond 
the knowledge of the children, it will be well to help them discover 
the name. Or she may give the name, and let the children say 
why given. 

EXAMPLES OF NAMES WHICH MAY BE FOUND BY CHILDREN. 

Bluebell. Body, spire, and beak (of a shell). 

Handle. Dimple (of an apple). 

Bowl (of a spoon). Ribs (of an umbrella). 

Use of parts should be shown by children whenever possible. 
Position and uses not usually written on the board. 

LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR PARTS. 



Watch. Table. 


Spade. 


Wheel. Chair. 


Fruit. 


Shoe. PaH. 


Articles of jewelry. 


Carpenter's tools. 


Kitchen utensils. 


(Refer also to list on page .) 





SECOND STEP. 

In this Step the children are led to distinguish between the 
object and its qualities. 

I. — An object is distinguished by its most simple and familiar 
qualities. 

II. — The idea of one essential and distinctive quality is sys- 
tematically developed. 

I, Simple and Common Qualities of Objects. 

As an example of a lesson on an object distinguished by its 
most simple and common qualities, take — 

1. Water. (Pattern.) 

What is in this cup ? Water. ( Teacher pours a little on a 
piece of paper, or of linen.) What has the water done to the 



OBJECTS. 97 

paper? Made it wet. Now observe me. (Teacher pours it out 
in drops.) Does it hold together, now that I pour it out little by- 
little ? No ; it forms itself into drops. Tell me, then, how 
the water is unlike the flint. The flint does not make the paper 
wet. It does not form itself into drops. Anything you can pour 
out so as to form it into drops, is called a liquid. What, then, 
can you say of water ? Water is a liquid. Tell me some other 
liquids. Beer, milk, &c. Now look into the cup of water ; what 
do you see ? We see a mark at the bottom of the cup. Here is 
another cup with the same mark at the bottom; look at it. (The 
teacher pours in a little milk.) Look at the mark again. We 
cannot see it now. Why not ? You have covered it with milk. 
But the mark in this cup is covered by water, and yet you see it ; 
how is this ? We can see through the water. What, then, can 
you say of water ? We can see through water. Find some 
other thing in the room that you can see through. The glass. 
Look at the water again, and find out something more that you 
can say of it. It shines. Yes ; it is bright. All of you repeat, 
"Water is bright." What color is the flint? Black. What 
can you say of the water ? Look at these colors (showing a red 
wafer, green leaf, &c). Which of these is the water like in color? 
None of them, teacher. What, then, must we say of it ? Water 
has no color. (The teacher calls upon some of the children to taste 
the water.) What do you observe ? It is cold. What taste do 
you perceive ? — you cannot tell me. Has it any taste ? No. 
What, then, can you say of it ? It has no taste. Repeat to- 
gether, " Water has no taste." 

What use have you made of water to-day ? We have washed 
ourselves with it. What quality of water makes it useful for 
washing ? Its being liquid. Beer is also a liquid ; why do you 
not wash in beer ? We should smell the beer. Then you pre- 
fer water for washing, because it has no smell. What other objec- 
tion is there against washing in beer ? It would not make us 
clean ; it would leave a brown stain. Why, then, is water a 
proper liquid to use for washing ? Because it has neither smell 
nor color, and it cleanses from dirt. When are you very glad to 
be able to have water ? When we are thirsty. Tell me, then, 
5 



98 OBJECTS. 

another use of water. It is useful for drinking. "Water, you see, 
is essential to every one ; can you tell me some liquids that we 
might do without ? Yes ; beer and gin. But what can we say 
of water ? * What can we most easily procure ? Water. Yes ; 
and as every one needs water, God has kindly supplied every 
country with it in abundance. 

Repeat together what you have found out about water. 
" Water is a liquid ; we can see through it ; it is bright ; it has 
no color, nor any taste, nor any smell ; it is cold ; it is used for 
washing and for drinking ; and because water is necessary to man, 
God has given to every country an abundant supply." j- 

Students construct lesson on " Milk," as " Water." 

2. Lead. 

What is this ? Lead. Can any of you tell me where lead 
comes from ? Does it come from an animal ? Is it part of a 
plant ? Where, then, does it come from ? It comes out of the 
earth. God has not only given us animals and vegetables to be 
useful to us, but he has stored up in the earth a great many things 
for our use : tell me one of them. Lead. Now take this lead 
into your hand ; what do you find ? It is heavy. Look at it, 
and tell me what you see. Part of it is very bright, where it has 
just been cut. And what is it everywhere else ? Dull. Repeat, 
" Lead, when freshly cut, is bright ; when it has been some time 
in the air, it becomes dull." Look at it again. It is gray. Now 
feel it. It is hard. When you touch it, you find it hard ; but 
look, what am I doing ? Cutting it. Lead, to the touch, is hard, 
but it is easily cut. I put some of it into water ; what happened 
to the lead when I put it into the water ? It fell to the bottom. 
Would the feather have done so ? No. Why did the lead sink ? 

* The teacher might remark upon the goodness of God in abundantly sup- 
plying every one everywhere with that liquid which is essential to comfort ; 
whilst the noxious spirit is obtained by art and labor, and at great cost. 

t It is most desirable that children should be early taught to write, or print; 
and printing on their slates all they can recollect of their lessons, forms a most 
improving exercise. In mixed schools this would furnish employment to one 
set of children while the teacher is engaged with another. 



OBJECTS. 99 

Because it is heavy. Did you know it was heavy before you saw 
it sink ? Yes ; we felt it heavy in our hands. 

Is there any child here whose father works in lead ? Yes ;* 
John's father works in lead. What is he called ? A plumber. 
People who work in lead are called plumbers. Well, John, tell 
us what your father does with lead. He makes windows. What 
sort of windows — those like the windows of this school room ? 
No ; windows made with little bits of glass. Where do you gen- 
erally see such windows — in large houses, or in small ones ? 
What is the use of the lead in windows such as these ? It fastens 
the pieces of glass together. What have our windows for this 
purpose ? Wood. And what is used to fasten the glass to the 
wood ? Putty. But in church windows, what is sometimes used ? 
Lead. Yes ; lead is used to fasten the glass together. Now, 
John, what other use does your father make of lead ? He makes 
pipes. All who can tell me what is the use of leaden pipes, hold 
up their hands. To convey water. Yes ; to convey water from 
one place to another. Who can tell me any other use of lead ? 
It is used for cisterns. What is the use of cisterns ? They hold 
water. What use do fishermen make of lead ? They put it on 
their nets. Why ? To make one edge of the net sink in the 
water. Why does the lead make that part of the net sink ? Be- 
cause it is very heavy. 

Well, now repeat all you have said about lead. " Lead comes 
out of the earth ; when it is freshly cut it is very bright ; but after 
it has been in the air for some time, it becomes dull ; it is very 
heavy ; its color is gray ; it is hard to the touch, but it is easily 
cut ; when put into water, it sinks ; people who work in lead are 
called plumbers ; they use it to fasten together the glass of church 
windows ; to make pipes to convey water, and cisterns of lead to 
hold it. Lead is also used in fishermen's nets." 

Students construct lesson on " Wood," as " Lead." 

Attention of students should be directed to the general plan 

* It may be that the child of a plumber is present at the lesson ; it must 
occasionally happen that some have seen the materials brought before them at 
school, used by their parents or others. A teacher should always make the most 
of any information the children may already possess. 



100 



OBJECTS. 



of these lessons. The children are led to notice first the qualities, 
then the uses, and lastly those qualities on which the uses depend. 

LIST OF OBJECTS. 

This it is unnecessary to give, as any common objects will do. 

LIST OF QUALITIES TO BE DEVELOPED AT THIS STEP. 

Simple qualities referring to Substance ; as, hard, soft, tough, brittle, 

liquid, &c. 

" Surface; as, rough, smooth, plane, flat. 

" Condition ; as, hot, cold, cool, warm, 

dry, moist, full, empty. 

" Shape; as, tapering, pointed, rounded, 
jagged, broken, torn, &c. 

" Direction; as, straight, curved, crook- 
ed. See " Lessons on Form." 

" Size ; as, large, small, thin, thick, deep, 
shallow, etc. 

" Color ; as, red, blue, green. See 
" Lessons on Color." 

" Number ; as, one, two, &c, up to ten. 

After a course of these lessons, the children, being made ac- 
quainted with common objects and their common qualities, may 
receive a few recapitulatory lessons on several of these in combi- 
nation. 



3. Sketch of a Lesson on " Distinguishing Objects by their 
Qualities." 

I. Introduction. — Bring before the children a large, round, ripe 
apple — a sheet of thin, smooth, pink paper — a slender, pointed 
cedar pencil — a piece of narrow, blue silk ribbon — an oblong, 
shallow wooden box — a square, white linen pocket handkerchief. 
Let the children give the name of each object, teacher writing the 
initial letter of each on the board as given, and requiring children 
to say what each letter stands for. 



OBJECTS. 101 

II. Ideas Developed. — Teacher requires the children to say- 
something of the apple as to size (large) ; as to shape (round) ; as 
to fitness for food (ripe). How other apples may be unlike this. 
"What we can say of this apple. (It is a large, round, ripe apple.) 
Children to describe the paper as to texture (thin) ; as to surface 
(smooth) ; as to color (pink). Other papers mentioned unlike 
this — tissue, brown, &c. How we can describe this sheet of 
paper. (It is a sheet of thin, smooth, pink paper.) Children to 
describe the pencil, as to girth (slender). Compare with thicker 
pencil, as to condition (pointed). Compare with uncut one, as to 
material (wood and lead). Tell them the wood is called cedar. 

Proceed in this way with the remaining objects. 

Summary. — Children to name the objects from the board, and 
describe them from memory. 

Students select six objects, upon which they construct a similar 
sketch. 

II. Essential and Distinctive Qualities of Objects. 

For the idea of one essential and distinctive quality sys- 
tematically developed, take — 

1. Sketch on the Development of the Idea of Adhesive Gum, 
for Adhesive. 



MATTER. 

1. G*m will stick. 

2. Gum is therefore 
said to be adhesive. 

3. Glue, melted seal- 
ing wax, and molasses, 
are also adhesive. 

4. All things that 
will stick to other ob- 
jects, are said to be 
adhesive. 



METHOD. 

1. Show this by experiment with post- 
age stamp. 

2. Term given. Questioned on. S. R. 
and W. B. 

3. Such examples found by the chil- 
dren. 

4. Children led to draw this general 
conclusion, which is committed to mem- 
ory. 



Students construct sketch on "Idea of Inflammable," as "Ad- 
hesive." 



102 OBJECTS. 

Toward the close of this Step, two or three qualities connected, 
or contrasted, may be taken together. 

EXAMPLE. 

2. Idea of Transparent, Semi-transparent, and Translucent. 

1. Bring before the children a piece of glass and a key. Hold 
the key behind a slate, also behind the piece of glass, and require 
them to notice the difference. "What they can say of the glass, 
that they cannot say of the slate. Give the term that distin- 
guishes things we can see through, and let the children repeat, 
" Glass, because we can see through it, is said to be transparent." 
Require them to give examples of things they can see through, as 
well as through glass ; also what such things are said to be. 

2. Place a knife with a white handle in some tea, and again 
behind the glass. What the glass shows about the knife, which 
the tea does not (the color). Lead them to recognize that they 
can clearly see through the glass, but only partly through the tea. 
Refer again to the term which distinguishes things through which 
we can clearly see, and let them try to find a term for anything 
through which we can partly see. Give the term, thus : Tea, be- 
cause we can see partly through it, is said to be semi-transparent. 
Explain the meaning of semi. Get examples of both terms, to 
be written on the board. 

3. Place the knife behind a china plate.' Children to say how 
it looks. (They cannot see it at all.) Hold the plate, with the knife 
behind it, opposite the window ; the shape of the knife can be 
seen. Explain to the children that the light can pass through the 
plate, except where the knife stops its passage. What they can 
say of the knife. (It is opaque — idea previously developed.) What 
they can say of the plate. We can see light through it. Give 
the term translucent, with definition. Get examples, and write 
on the board as before. 

Summary. — Children say how well they can see through 
anything transparent (clearly). What they cannot see through 
anything which is semi-transparent (color). What only they can 



OBJECTS. 



103 



see through anything which is translucent (form). In conclusion, 
give the general definition of each term. 

Students construct sketch on three kinds of Roundness (Globu- 
lar, Cylindrical, and Circular), as sketch on " Transparent," &c. 

As a final exercise, the children may be tested in discovering 
objects by the mention of their qualities. Teacher says : I have 
something hidden in my hand (a blade of grass). It is long ; it 
is narrow ; it is pointed at one end ; it is flexible ; fibrous ; vege- 
table ; green. Speaking thus, the teacher pauses between each 
term, allowing the children to judge as she proceeds, and making 
them name the quality which led to the discovery of the object. 
Sealing wax : — It is long ; it is smooth ; it is colored ; it is inflam- 
mable ; fusible ; impressible. Drinking glass : — It is bright ; it is 
hard ; smooth ; sonorous ; hollow, and transparent. Judgment 
must be shown in putting the more general qualities first, and the 
more special afterward. 

LIST FOR DEVELOPING IDEAS AS TO THE QUALITIES OF OBJECTS. 



Paper, as being 


Inflammable 


Leather .... 


Tough. 


Glass .... 


Brittle. 


Cotton .... 


Soft. 


Cork .... 


Light. 


Card or Cane, String 


Flexible. 


Cloth .... 


Pliable. 


Whalebone, India rubber, Sponge . 


Elastic. 


"Water .... 


Liquid. 


Wood .... 


Solid. 


Loaf Sugar 


Sparkling. 


A Mirror, or Water, 


Reflective. 


Sponge 


Absorbent. 


Bread .... 


Porous. 


Chalk .... 


Crumbling. 


Flax and Hemp 


Fibrous. 


Gum . 


Soluble. 


Lead . 


Fusible. 



104 



OBJECTS. 



Oil-skin 

Leather 

Sealing-wax 

Glue 

Camphor 

Lavender 

Horn or Gum 

Cloves 

"Water . 

Ginger 

Salt or Sand 



"Water-proof. 

Durable. 

Impressible. 

Adhesive. 

Odorous. 

Fragrant. 

Semi-transparent. 

Aromatic. 

Tasteless. 

Pungent. 

Granular. 



LIST OF CONNECTED OR CONTRASTED QUALITIES, FOR RECAPITU- 
LATION. 

1. Soft, hard, tough. 

2. Light, heavy, buoyant. 

3. Eough, smooth, polished, adhesive. 

4. Stiff, pliable, flexible, elastic. 

5. Brittle, rotten, fragile, friable, pulverable. 

6. Fibrous, granulous. 

7. Inflammable, fusible, soluble. 

8. Porous, absorbent, waterproof. 



THIRD STEP. 



In this Step a more thorough examination of the object is 
made. We consider 

Parts, Qualities, Uses. 
Adaptation of Qualities to Use. 

Qualities as discovered by the senses, or by simple ex- 
periment. 
The less obvious Qualities. 
Qualities as depending on one another. 
Adaptation of Material or Structure to Use. 



OBJECTS. 105 

Sometimes two objects are taken for comparison in respect to 
any of these points. 

In this Step, as the subjects of the lessons go beyond the range 
of the child's immediate experience, some information may be 
given. Let it be remembered, however, that the mind of the child 
may be exercised as much on information given him by the teach- 
er, as on anything he can discover for himself. The teacher who 
tells the child a fact, requires him to state the cause, or the effect, 
or some other relation. For everything told to the pupil, the 
latter should be required in return to tell something bearing on 
what has been told to him. Tell him that a substance cast into 
the form of a hollow cylinder is stronger than the same quantity 
of matter in a solid form ; let him say why the barrel of a quill 
is hollow, and not solid. Tell him what places the kingfisher fre- 
quents, and let him infer the character of its food. Tell him that 
the fur of animals thickens at a certain period of the year ; let 
him discover when and why. Tell him that the concentric circles 
in the trunk of a tree are not equal in diameter ; let him find 
any circumstances likely to account for the fact. 



1. Sketch on an Egg. 

Point. — Parts, qualities, uses, and qualities on which the uses 
depend. 



I. Parts.— The parts 
of an egg are the shell, 
lining, albumen, en- 
velope, air bag, and 
yelk. 



II. Qualities. — The 
shell is oval, white, 
5* 



I. Parts. — Show an egg, and let the 
children name its parts. Break the egg, 
and show each part, correcting any errors 
they have made. Let the children ob- 
serve how these parts are placed with re- 
spect to each other : *. e., the shell is out- 
side, the lining is inside the shell, &c. 
"Write the parts, and their position, on the 
board. Draw the terra lining from the 
children. Give the terms albumen, air 
bag, envelope. 

II. Qualities.- — Develop oval, by com- 
paring the egg with a sphere. Develop 



106 



OBJECTS. 



hard, opaque, and brit- 
tle. The lining is trans- 
lucent, white, thin, 
and tough. The al- 
bumen is semi-trans- 
parent, adhesive, and 
liquid. The yelk is 
yellow, opaque, and 
semi-fluid. 



hardness, by comparing it with an orange. 
Brittle, by referring to the experiment of 
breaking the egg just performed. Develop 
translucent, semi-transparent, and opaque 
together, by comparing the different parts 
of the egg one with another, but apply the 
terms separately to the proper substances. 
Develop semi-fluid, by comparison of a 
solid and a fluid. Write the qualities on 
the board. 

III. — Draw from the children, by ques- 
tions, the uses of eggs, and the qualities 
on which the uses depend. By compari- 
son of eggs as prepared for our food, and 
for that of little birds, lead them to see 
that birds must have a much stronger 
digestion than we. From the use made 
of the albumen, let them say what quality 
it must possess. This will prepare them 
for the next question — why we put eggs 
into puddings ? We need not make a 
thick, heavy paste of flour : a little flour 
will do, or even crumbled bread, when we 
have enough eggs. 



III. Uses, and quali- 
ties on which uses de- 
pend. — Eggs are used 
as food for man, and 
then must be lightly 
cooked, or we should 
not readily digest them. 
As food for young 
birds, they must be 
boiled hard like leather. 

Eggs are put into 
cakes and puddings, 
because adhesive and 
light. The albumen 
is used to mend china 
and glass, because ad- 
hesive. The shells 
are good for fowls to 
mix with their food. 

Summary. — Read from the board, and repeated from memory. 
Students construct sketch on " Peach," as the " Egg." 



2. Sketch on Comparison of Orange and Apple. 

Point. — Parts, qualities, uses, and qualities on which uses 
depend. 



MATTER. 

I. Resemblances. 

1. Qualities. Both 
are natural, vegetable, 
juicy, (nearly) spheri- 



METHOD. 

I. Resemblances. 

1. That these fruits are natural, is 
brought out by reference to the works of 
God and man, children giving examples. 



OBJECTS. 



107 



cal, wholesome, and 
pleasant to the taste. 



2. Parts. Both 
have seeds in the 
midst, peel, and pulp. 

II. Differences. 

1. Pulp. The pulp 
of an orange is yellow, 
divided, and without a 
core. The pulp of an 
apple is white, undi- 
vided, and contains a 
core. It is harder than 
the pulp of an orange. 

2. Peel. Orange 
peel is thick, somewhat 
rough, and orange 
color. Apple peel is 
thin, smooth, and va- 
ries in color. 

III. Uses, and quali- 
ties on which uses de- 
pend. 

1. Apples are made 
into sauce, tarts, cider, 
&c. Are best when 
cooked. 

2. Oranges make 
candy, marmalade, 
wine. Are best un- 
cooked. Each eaten 
because pleasant to the 
taste, and wholesome. 

IV. Growth, culti- 
vation, &c. 

1. Apples are grown 
in the Northern and 



Vegetable, by referring to the different 
kingdoms. Juicy, by experiment (cutting 
fruit). Spherical, by comparison with a 
coin or ring. Wholesome, by reference to 
a horse chestnut ; distinguished from nour- 
ishing, by comparison with an egg. Pleas- 
ant to the taste, by experiment, or an ap- 
peal to memory. ("W\ B.) 

2. Children find out the corresponding 
parts, and the position of each, by obser- 
vation. 

II. Differences in the arrangement, sub- 
stance, color, and in presence and absence 
of core, brought out by observation. 



III. Appeal to experience and reason 
of children. 



IV. 

1. Teacher refers to map, and points out 
States where apples grow. Children de- 



108 



OBJECTS. 



cide as to the kind of climate that is neces- 
sary for their growth. 



2. Proceed the same for oranges. 



Middle States. They 
require a moderately 
warm climate. A plan- 
tation of apples is called 
an orchard. 

2. Oranges grow in 
the Southern States 
and Cuba. They re- 
quire a hot climate. A 
plantation of oranges 
is called an orangery. 

Summary. — "Write heads on the slate. Children give matter. 

Third head left out, because not essential to be committed to 
memory. 

Students construct sketch on " Kid Glove and Kid Slipper," 
as " Orange and Apple." 



3. Sketch on Comparison of Cork and Sponge. 

Point. — Quality on which uses depend, and dependence of one 
quality on another. 



I. — 1. Cork is natu- 
ral. 

2. Cork is vegetable. 

3. Cork is foreign. 

4. Cork is light. 

5. Cork is brown. 

6. Cork is compres- 
sible and elastic. 

7. Cork is porous. 



8. Cork is impervi- 
ous and buoyant. 



I. — 1. Brought out by reference to the 
works of man. 

2. Children asked where it comes from. 
Told that it is the bark of a tree. 

3. Children told where the tree grows. 
Map referred to. 

4. Children referred to water as the 
standard weight. The lightness of cork 
shown by experiment. 

5. Show different specimens, and- let 
children name the color. 

6. By experiment. 

7. By direct observation with a magni- 
fying glass, and comparison with dense 
substances, as minerals. 

8. By experiment. 



OBJECTS. 



109 



II. Qualities depend- 
ent one on another. 

1. Cork is buoyant, 
not merely because it 
is light, but because it 
is impervious. Cork 
is impervious because 
its pores are small, and 
but little connected. 

2. Sponge is absorb- 
ent, because its pores 
are large and connect- 
ed. 



III. Sponge is a 
natural animal sub- 
stance, light, brown, 
compressible, elastic, 
and porous. 



IV. Uses, and quali- 
ties on which uses de- 
pend. ^ 

1. Cork is used for 
life boats, cork legs and 
arms, because buoyant 
and light ; for soles of 
shoes, because imper- 
vious ; for stoppers of 
bottles, because imper- 
vious, elastic, and com- 
pressible. 

2. Sponge is useful 
for washing, because 
absorbent, compressi- 
ble, elastic, light, 
tough, and durable. 



II. 



1. Children led to discover the buoy- 
ancy of cork. They decide whether light 
or heavy things float on water, and, by 
experiment, which is the lighter — cork or 
sponge. Yet, as they perceive, the sponge 
soon sinks, while the cork still floats. 
Why this is ? 

2. Cut the sponge, to show the com- 
munication between the external openings 
and the central channels. Children say 
what must happen if we put such a struc- 
ture under water, and why. Try the ex- 
periment. 

III. For animal, children asked where 
we find sponge ? What it is, and a little of 
the natural history given. Mention the 
term marine. Children give other exam- 
ples of marine substances, as coral, &c. 
Children required to mention qualities of 
sponge, the same as those possessed by cork. 



1. Brought out by referring to previous 
knowledge (teacher giving any needful 
information as to uses). In bringing out 
the qualities on which uses depend, the 
reason is appealed to. 



2. Brought out by getting children to 
describe the effect of the process of wash- 
ing, on the sponge. It receives water, be- 
cause it is absorbent ; it discharges the 
water when used, because it is compressi- 
ble ; it resumes its former shape, and be- 
comes fit for use as before, because it is 
elastic ; it is easily lifted and moved, be- 
cause it is light ; it lasts for a long time in 
constant use, and is not worn away, be- 
cause it is tough and durable. 



110 



OBJECTS. 



Summary. — Children arrange and classify the "Matter" 
under " Resemblances and Differences of Cork and Sponge," as : 



RESEMBLANCES. DIFFERENCES. 

Both are natural, Cork is a vegetable substance. Sponge 
foreign, light, brown, is an animal substance. Cork is imper- 
porous, compressible, vious. Sponge is absorbent. Cork is 
and elastic. buoyant, because light and impervious ; 

impervious on account of the smallness 
and want of connection of its pores. 
Sponge, though lighter than cork, is not 
buoyant, because absorbent ; and absorb- 
ent, because of the size and open structure 
of its pores. 

Students construct sketch on " Comparison of Salt and Sugar," 
like " Cork and Sponge." 



4. Sketch on Water. 
Points. — Qualities on which uses depend. Less obvious quali- 



ties. 

MATTER. 

1. "Water is taste- 
less and refreshing ; 
therefore useful to 
drink. 



2. "Water is a sol- 
vent, without smell or 
color; therefore useful 
for washing, for fer- 
tilizing the ground, and 
for dissolving various 
substances. 



3. Water is refiec- 



1. Children say why they like to drink 
water in summer. Whether there is any- 
thing they like better to drink. Whether 
they would like to drink cider or tea only 
whenever they were thirsty, and at every 
meal. (They would get tired of it.) "Why 
they cannot get tired of water. Effect of 
drinking water when very thirsty. 

2. Experiment. — Put a little sugar into 
water. Children say what the water does. 
Are told what water is. Find other things 
of which water is a solvent. Refer to 
water as nourishing plants, and explain 
that it does so by dissolving substances in 
the ground which are their food. Refer 
to use of water in washing. As beer is a 
solvent, lead children to find why it would 
not do to wash in that. 

3. Experiment. — "Water will serve as a 



OBJECTS. 



Ill 



tive, which makes it a 
beautiful object in a 
landscape. 



4. "Water takes the 
shape of the vessel that 
holds it. 



5. "Water exists in 
different states — some- 
times as a liquid, some- 
times as a solid, and 
sometimes as a vapor. 



6. Water is found 
in different places — in 
the clouds overhead, in 
the caves of the earth, 
underneath and on the 
surface of the ground. 



mirror. Children find what does better 
than water, and why. Refer to the con- 
dition of people before mirrors were in- 
vented. Objects commonly mirrored in 
water. Effect of this reflection on the 
scene. 

4. Experiment with — 1, plate ; 2, basin ; 
3, vial. Children describe these as to ex- 
tent — 1, wide and shallow ; 2, not so wide, 
but deeper ; 3, narrow across, but deeper. 
Fill each with water, and measure in dif- 
ferent directions, showing how the extent 
of the water corresponds with that of the 
vessel. Children called on to say what 
will happen if the contents of the vessels 
be exchanged. 

5. Experiment. — Refer to the idea of 
liquid. Refer to a little girl who went for 
water on a very cold day. She found only 
ice. How this differed from liquid water. 
She put the solid ice into the kettle — put 
the kettle on the fire. Second change 
water underwent (vapor). Children to say 
where they expect to find much ice, and 
why there is often so little water in very 
hot countries. 

6. By reference to the uses of water, 
and the sufferings caused by the scarcity 
of it, show the goodness of God in sup- 
plying it abundantly. Children say where 
it is to be found. Refer to where the 
vapor went, and tell them the clouds are 
made of this vapor. Thus some water is 
always floating in the air, whence it falls 
in rain. Some in hollow places in the 
earth ; hence it gushes out in springs, and 
there is generally plenty on the surface of 
the ground, that we may get it easily. 



A.S each point is worked out, let children form a sentence, 
which write on the board as found in " Matter." 

For summary, read matter from the board, and rewrite from 
memory. < 



112 



OBJECTS. 



Students construct sketch on " Mercury," or "Air," as 
"Water." 

5. Sketch on Loaf Sugar. 

Points. — Qualities as discovered by the senses. Less obvious 
qualities. 

MATTER. METHOD. 



1. Sugar is white, 
sparkling, opaque. 



2. Sugar is rough 
and hard. 

3. Sugar is sweet. 

4. Sugar is fusible, 
brittle, granulous, and 
crystallized. 



1. Present a piece of loaf sugar, and 
ask the children to give the name, and 
tell wbat they can discover by looking 
at it. Compare it with a piece of crys- 
tal. Points of difference — one translu- 
cent, the other opaque. Points of resem- 
blance — hard, white, bright. Compare 
the brightness of both objects — one is 
bright all over, the other full of little 
bright points. A thing clear, bright all 
over, is said to be lucid. A thing full of 
little bright points, is said to be sparkling. 
Children name other objects that sparkle, 
and find by comparison that things that 
sparkle have usually a rough surface. 

2. Bring out rough and hard, by asking 
children what they can say after feeling 
of it. 

3. By taste. 

4. Bring out fusible, soluble, brittle, and 
granulous, by direct observation and ex- 
periment. Crystallized, by aid of micro- 
scope, (a) Children compare the magni- 
fied grains with each other, and find that 
they are alJ the same shape, (b) Chil- 
dren notice that they are solid, by reference 
to the broken grains. Whether they find 
anything inside ? (c) Produce some of the 
simplest solids, and some amorphous stones, 
which the grains must resemble. Why ? 
Because some are broken, and others are 
whole. Show one part of a solid concealing 
the other part. What children expect to find 
on the other side — corresponding faces and 
edges. Will know that crystals re alike. 
Give term regular. Tell children that 



OBJECTS. 



113 



5. Sugar is vegeta- 
ble, cultivated, and 
manufactured. 



substances formed in little grains, all of 
wliich are regular solids, are said to be 
crystallized. Refer to sugar as juice of a 
plant. Children state the origin and origi- 
nal form of sugar (liquid). Produce vari- 
ous specimens of crystals, and after draw- 
ing attention to them as such (being regu- 
lar), tell them that every one of these was 
once a liquid, and has now become a regu- 
lar solid. Examples found by children of 
a liquid that crystallizes (snow). Might 
be followed by lesson on the forms, into 
which many objects crystallize. 

5. Bring out vegetable, by reference to 
the sugar cane, of which show a specimen. 
Cultivated, by comparison with grass, &c. 
Manufactured, by comparison of the cane 
with its product (sugar). Some informa- 
tion given as to the processes the article 
undergoes in the course of manufacture. 



Points, as worked out, written on the board. 

Summary. — Erase " Matter." Children say which of the 
qualities they have considered have been discovered by sight ; 
which by feeling ; by taste ; by experiment ; and by reference to 
previous knowledge. "Write the qualities, as the children shall dic- 
tate, in separate columns. 

Qualities discovered by more than one sense, may be written 
in separate columns, thus : — 



Sense of 


Sense of 


Sense of 




Previous 


Sight. 


Feeling. 


Taste. 


Experiment. 


Knowledge. 


White. 


Rough( 2 ). 


Sweet. 


Fusible. 


Cultivated. 


Sparkling. • 


Hard. 




Soluble. 


Manufactured 


Opaque. 






Brittle. 




Rough( 1 ). 






Granulous. 
Crystallized. 





Students construct sketch on "Bread," as "Sugar." 



114: OBJECTS. 

6 Sketch on a Mould Candle. 

• 

Points. — Material and Structure. Adaptation of each to uses. 

I. Shape and Substance. — The candle is long — length com- 
pared with girth. Slender — ; girth compared with length. Term 
given — Nearly cylindrical. Number and kind of sides of a cylin- 
der observed. In what respects the candle differs. Description 
given — It is made of tallow and cotton, the tallow outside, the cot- 
ton inside, where it forms a loop at one end. Materials and their 
position observed. Terms wick and loop given. 

II. Qualities. 

1. Tallow is an animal substance — brought out by reference to 
whence we get it. It is white — by sight. Adhesive — a little 
dropped on some paper. Impressible — the candle scratched by a 
match or pin. Solid or liquid, according to the temperature — candle 
lighted, and the part nearest the flame compared with the rest. 
What makes the difference ? 

2. Cotton wick is white and soft — by looking and feeling. 
Tough — by reference to breaking a candle ; what part remains 
unbroken. Fibrous — compared with chalk, which is formed of 
little grains. Is a vegetable substance — children brought to this 
conclusion by being told that all vegetable substances are fibrous. 
"What, then, is cotton ? How they know this, &c. Told a little 
about the cotton tree ; that it grows in warm climates, &c. Pic- 
ture shown. Is absorbent — lighted wick observed. Is inflam- 
mable, though less so than tallow — saturated and unsaturated wick 
lighted. Which takes fire the sooner, and why ? Burns to ashes, 
and then ceases to absorb. What we do with the ashes, and why ? 

III. Uses, and qualities on which the use depends. — Candles 
are burned to give light. This use depends on the fact that the wick 
is inflammable and absorbent, and the tallow inflammable and 
fusible. Tallow and wick compared — which takes fire soonest ? 
In what respects they are alike. What the wick would do with- 
out the tallow — smoulder away without giving much light. The 
tallow without the wick — flow in all directions while blazing 
away. What the wick does to the tallow — absorbs it. Then 
" the wick must be not only inflammable, but absorbent." In 



OBJECTS. 115 

what state the tallow is when absorbed — in a liquid state. " Tal- 
low must be not only inflammable, but must be fusible." 

Matter put on the board point by point, as worked out. Eead 
by the children. Erased by the teacher, who writes: 

I. State the parts of the candle. 
II. State on what qualities — 1, of the tallow ; 2, of the wick — 
t the use of the candle depends. 

Children reproduce the lesson on their slates. 
Students construct sketch on " Match," as "Candle." 

7. Sketch on a Knife and Fork. 

Points. — Material and Structure. — Adaptation of each to use. 

1. Objects Observed and Compared. — 1. Resemblance. — Traced 
by the children. As to use — both used in taking food. Substance — 
partly mineral and partly animal. Make — both have handles, 
shanks, and points. 

2. Difference. — In use — one to cut up the food, the other to 
keep it firm and convey it to the mouth. In make — the one has 
a blade, the other a shank spreading out into three prongs. "Why 
this difference ? 

II. Adaptation of Make to Use. — Children to determine this. 
Handles and shanks to both. Why ? The blade of the knife — 
why thin at one edge ? "Why blunt at back ? — to allow the pres- 
sure of the finger in cutting ; also to strengthen the blade. The 
fork — its shank — why longer than in the knife ? Why partly 
visible, and not, as in the knife, hidden by the handle ? Its use. 
Prongs — their number, and the reason for this number. Why 
narrowing towards the points ? Why edged, and not quite cylin- 
drical ? — to give them a firmer hold in the meat. Use of the 
shoulder. 

III. Adaptation of Material to Make. — Children to discover 
this by comparing it with various other substances. 

1. The Blade of the Knife. — Why not of stone? — a stone 
blade could not give way when, being used, it might happen to 
come in contact with any other substance, as gristle, &c. It is 



116 OBJECTS. 

not flexible. "Why not of lead ? — a leaden blade would bend, 
lose its shape, and become useless. Not elastic. Why not of 
tortoise shell? — a tortoise shell blade as likely to break as to 
yield. Why not of wood ? — a blade made of wood, or of any of 
the other substances, would not take an edge sufficiently flue 
and sharp. The last two substances not sufficiently hard or 
tenacious. 

Requisites for the blade of a knife determined by the chil- 
dren — flexibility, elasticity, tenacity, hardness. Why not of iron, 
which possesses all these qualities? — the blade must be very 
smooth, and capable of taking a high polish, to cut thin, smooth 
slices. Substance possessing all these requisites — steel. 

2. The metallic part of the fork. — Qualities required — tena- 
city — hardness — capability of taking polish. Steel required for 
this also. 

3. Handles. — Must be light. Why? — the metal is heavy. 
Smooth. Why ? — that the touch may be pleasant to the hand, 
and that they may be easily cleaned. On these accounts com- 
monly made of bone — the more expensive ones of ivory. 

Summary. — The children required to reproduce — first, orally 
from the board, and afterward in writing on their own slates. 

Students construct sketch on "Pen and Pencil," as "Knife 
and Fork." 

8. Sketch on the Spider's Web. 
Point. — Material and Structure. Adaptation of each to use. 



1. The garden spi- 
der makes a web in 
which to take its prey. 



2. The spider's web 
is made from a thick 
glue contained in its 
body. The creature 



1. Draw a diagram of the web on the 
board, getting the children to notice the 
kind of lines made — whether vertical or 
horizontal. Finally, let them say what 
object the whole represents, and of what 
use it is. 

2. Question as to material of which web 
is made. What it is like ? How they 
know it is not cotton, silk, or hair? Hav- 
ing exercised their reason and curiosity, 



OBJECTS. 



117 



has five or six holes in 
its sides, out of which 
the glue oozes. This 
substance is very tena- 
cious, and can be drawn 
into the finest threads. 



3. (a) To begin her 
web, the spider presses 
her side against the 
wall ; then a drop of 
glue conies out, which 
sticks. 

(b) She then jumps 
to the other side, carry- 
ing the thread with her. 
She goes backward and 
forward several times, 
ever adding to the 
thickness of the thread. 

(c) She next goes 
from corner to corner, 
and then across, until 
the whole space is filled 
up with threads regu- 
larly arranged. 

(d) She fastens the 
sides to the wall by 
threads projecting from 
the outer edge. 

(e) Lastly, she 
makes a little cell in 
the middle underneath, 
in which she can hide 
while watching for 
prey. 

4. The material of 
the web is a tenacious 



tell them. Show some ravelled silk, and 
tell them it would take many of the spi- 
der's threads to equal one of these — thus 
giving them an idea of their thinness. 
Draw threads from some heated sealing- 
wax, to develop the idea of tenacious — 
give the term. Let them apply it to spi- 
ders' threads. Get other examples. If 
not readily given, refer to melted glass, 
metal, or even molasses. Then, from ex- 
periment with the sealing wax, the chil- 
dren will see that the more the threads are 
drawn out, the thinner they must become. 
3. (a) Tell children. 



(b) Illustrate this on the board. Let 
the children say how the doubling, treb- 
ling, &c, will affect the thread. Whether 
there would be one thick thread, or sev- 
eral thin ones, and why ? 



(c) Illustrate this by drawing lines in 
order on the board. Let children notice 
how closely the threads come together. 



(d) Draw from the children how this 
can be fastened to the wall, and what 
quality enables the threads to fasten them- 
selves. 

(e) Tell them of the cell ; of its situa- 
tion out of light. Let them say of what 
use it can be to the spider. 



4. Facts, from memory — results, by rea- 
son ; for instance, let the children discover 



118 OBJECTS. 



glue. Its threads are 
thin, drawn closely to- 
gether, and wonderful- 
ly strong, first to catch, 
and then to hold the 
prey. 



what would happen if a fly came to a web, 
the threads of which were wide apart, or 
made of a very fragile substance. Refer 
to an insect in molasses or cream ; show 
that the more it struggles, the more it is 
stuck fast. 



In conclusion, refer to the discomfort of flies in summer, the 
mischief they do, &c. Let the children say of what use the spi- 
der is to man. Refer to the wisdom of God in creating the spider. 

Students construct sketch on " Cocoon," as " Spider's Web." 

9. Sketch on the Honeycomb. 

Point. — Material and Structure. Adaptation of the latter to 
uses — so brought out as to develop the idea of Instinct. 

I. Material. — Made by bees of a substance obtained from 
flowers, and called wax. Usually found in a kind of box called 
a hive. Refer to the condition of bees in wild countries, where 
no hives are provided for them. What they occupy — cavities in 
rocks, holes in trees, &c. Refer to the reed baskets used in 
Africa. 

II. Structure. — Why the bees make the comb — to put their 
honey in. How adapted to this purpose — by being full of cells. 
Give the term cellular. Also to keep the young bees in before 
they are able to fly about, &c. The young of the bee is round in 
shape. Children say of what shape they would expect their 
cradles to be. Whether the cells are of this shape — they are 
six-sided. Give the term hexagonal. Why hexagonal, and not 
round? To bring this out, draw two diagrams on the board, 
one representing round, and the other hexagonal cells. Direct 
attention to the spaces between the round cells. Suppose this 
space filled up with wax, as it would be in the honeycomb, of 
what use would the wax be there ? None ; it would be a waste 
of material. But suppose the bee to take away with its pincers 
all the wax between the cells, except a thin thread ; this would 
save the wax, but what the effect would be — this would be too 



Objects. 119 

fragile ; the weight of the young bee would crush it. How won- 
derful to see the little bee meet these difficulties, by making hex- 
aeon al cells, which take the least amount of wax consistent with 
the proper strength of the comb, and are just as good to keep the 
young bees in. 

III. The faculty of the constructor. — Eefer to themselves, 
their work, their lessons (as writing). At first they do a thing 
badly, then better, and at length very well. But the bee makes 
the first honeycomb as well as the last. If several men had to 
make each a cradle, and without seeing the work of the rest, their 
workmanship would be very different ; perhaps, too, the material 
and the design. The work of all bees is just alike in all respects. 
The bees in the garden of Eden worked as the bees in their gar- 
dens to-day. The faculty which enables the bee thus to work, is 
called instinct. Children give examples of instinct as shown by 
other animals. Children say how they recognize instinct, (a) In- 
stinct never improves ; its work is as perfect first as last, (b) The 
work is the same as done by all other creatures of the same kind. 

Instead of summary, draw from the children a statement of the 
advantage of hexagonal over round cells, and definition of in- 
stinct. 

Students construct sketch on " Bird's Nest," as " Honey- 
comb." 

10. Sketch on the Palm Tree. 

Point. — To exercise the children on information given. 

I. Fruit. — Show this to the children, and let them say what 
kind of substance it is. Get or give the name of the fruit. Let 
them describe it as to shape, color, parts, flavor. Let them taste 
it. Write on the board the following : — The date is a fruit of an 
oblong shape ; it has a tough, smooth skin, a pulpy part, and a 
very hard stone in the centre. 

II. Tree. — Tell the children that the dates have been gathered 
from a tree which grows in a country far away. Describe the 
country as having large sandy plains, arid and barren. Refer to 
the heat of the climate, and the intense thirst caused by this. 



120 OBJECTS. 

The condition of travellers after marching many miles. They see 
a grove of tall trees. Name of these. How travellers feel when 
they are covered from the hot, burning sun, and can eat the fruit. 
Draw picture of the tree, and direct attention of the children to 
' the height the trunk of the tree grows without leaves. Tell them 
it grows from sixty to one hundred feet. To give the idea of the 
height, compare it with the length of the school room, fence, or 
yard. ("W. B.) : " The date palm grows in the desert. It has a 
trunk which is from sixty to one hundred feet high." 

III. Uses. — Children to name those parts of the tree likely to 
be useful to man, and the. uses made of them. Correct errors, and 
supply information. (W. B.) : " The fruit is used for food. The 
stones are bruised for the seeds, which are given to the camels. 
The leaves are made into fans, baskets, and hats. The wood is 
used for building houses." 

Summary. — Recapitulation of lesson from memory. 

Students construct a lesson on the " Cedar," as the " Palm." 

LIST OF IDEAS TO BE DEVELOPED AND TERMS TO BE GIVEN, ETC., 
IN THIS STEP. 

1. Terms expressing less obvious qualities ; as, buoyant, ductile, 
malleable, tenacious, sonorous, stimulating, fertilizing, conservative 
or preservative, aromatic, astringent, medicinal, effervescent, emol- 
lient, oily, mixable, irregular shaped, slimy, &c. 

2. Terms expressing ideas referring to structure; as, woven, 
f cellular, tubular, netted, serrated, indented, crystallized, concave, 
i convex, spiral, &c. 

3. Terms expressing ideas referring to the nature and con- 
dition of substances ; as, metallic, gaseous, fluid, watery, sweet, 
saline, vinous, non-conductor, fermented, manufactured, exported, 
imported, &c. 

FOUKTH STEP 

Includes Classification of Objects, and so leads up to science. 
Also, Classification of Qualities. Lessons on the senses them- 
selves should be given at this step. 



OBJECTS. 121 

Where the course of instruction does not contain a course of 
lessons on Actions, which properly lead to manufactures, arts, &c, 
some consideration of these subjects may properly be referred to 
Objects, Fourth Step. 

1. Sketch to Develop the Idea of Distinction between the Essential 

and Accidental Qualities of an Object. 

I. — Teacher presents a number of various pieces of sealing wax, 
telling the children to find, state, and classify the differences. 
They are red, blue, green, &c. ; therefore they differ in color. 

One is thick, slender, long ; therefore they differ in size. 

One is flattened, another cylindrical ; therefore they differ in 
form. 

By experiment, one is hard, softened, fused, whole, broken, 
stamped ; therefore they differ in condition. 

II. — Children required to state the resemblances — vegetable, 
fusible, impressible, and adhesive. Children led to see that we 
can have no sealing wax which has not the four qualities ; while 
we often have pieces not red, not cylindrical, or not stamped. 
Terms and definitions given. " The qualities which a thing must 
have to be itself, are called essential qualities. Qualities which it 
may have, but can be itself without having, are called accidental." 

2. Sketch to Develop the Idea of the Distinction between Generic 

and Specific Qualities. 

I. — The teacher, standing before a large table covered with a 
variety of objects, including pictures of birds, which can readily 
be classified, desires first one and then another of the children to 
group all that should go together. Children group — 



Swallow, 


Robin, 


Kingfisher, 


. as Birds. 


Silver, 


Gold, 


Iron, 


as Metals. 


Wheat, 


Maize, 


Oats, 


as Grain. 


Water, 


Milk, 


Ink, 


as Liquids. 


Tulip, 


Lily, 


Rose, 


. as Flowers, 



122 OBJECTS. 

n. — 1. Children to say how they know a flower when they 
see it. Definition worked out from their answers, and written on 
the board, thus : "A flower is the most beautiful part of a plant, 
It usually has colored leaflets, and contains the seed." 

2. Children say how they know a rose when they see it, 
Definition worked out as before. "The rose is a flower distin- 
guished by a number of stamens, which rise from the top of the 
seed vessel. Often it is pink in color, round in shape ; has many 
leaves, and a fragrant scent." 

III. Differences in terms distinguished. — Ask children whether 
we can call all flowers roses t No ; for some are violets, some 
are pinks, &c. Whether there are more flowers or roses in the 
world, and why ? Children thus led to see that flower is the 
name of a large class, while rose is the name of a smaller class 
contained in the large class. Compare this with a school, and its 
classes. 

IV. Names given and applied. — Tell the children that words 
which express the large class are said to be generic, and words 
which express the small class said to be specific. 

1. Let them apply these terms to flower and rose, respectively. 

2. Give jewel as the name of a large class, and let the chil- 
dren give the name of some smaller class belonging to it, as dia- 
mond, &c. 

3. Then give trout as the name of a small class. Children to 
find the name of the large class to which it belongs. 

Children give as many examples of generic and specific quali- 
ties as needful. Put down all the examples in two columns under 
the proper heads, as the children shall direct. 

Examples. 

GENERIC. SPECIFIC. 

Picture. Painting. 

Pillar. Column. 

Edifice. School house. 

Temple. Church. 

Furniture. Chair. 

Ornament. Bracelet. 

Servant. Slave. 

Feature. Nose. 



OBJECTS. 



123 



3. Sketch of a Lesson on Shells and their Inmates. 



I. Use. — Shells are 
found in the sea ; also 
in rivers, and some on 
land. They serve both 
for the homes and 
armor of certain ani- 
mals. These have no 
bones, and cold, white, 
or colorless blood. 
These, being soft, are 
called mollusks. 



II. Of what com- 
posed. — Shells are 
made by the animals 
which inhabit them. 
They are composed of 
three substances : 1, 
lime, a sort of chalk, 
which the creature ob- 
tains from the water ; 
2, a glue given out by 
it from its own body — 
this varies in color, and 
gives color to the 
shells ; 3, part of the 
skin of the animal. 



I. — Bring before the children some 
shells. Let them say what they are. 
"Where found ? Supply information as to 
shells found inland, and by reference to 
them as marine objects, lead children to 
conclude that wherever they are found the 
sea must once have been. Show an 
oyster shell containing its inmate. Chil- 
dren state the use of the shell. The last 
use brought out by reference to its de- 
fenceless condition without it. Let a child 
press the oyster ; then press his own chin 
or forehead. The difference, and its cause. 
What they can say of the oyster. (S. R.) : 
" The oyster has no bones." Another 
difference discovered by touch. Its cause. 
(S. R.) : " The blood of the oyster is cold." 
Refer to the color of our blood. Cut the 
oyster, to show the watery liquid. (S. R.) : 
" The blood of the oyster is colorless." 
Children told that all animals living in 
shells resemble the oyster in all these 
points, and on account of their soft, bone- 
less structure, are called mollusks. Chil- 
dren dictate the matter of this head. 
(W. B.) 

II. — Refer to storms at sea, the waves 
dashing the shells against rocks, &c, and 
lead children to see that shells require to be 
made very strong. Show a specimen of 
the lime as one constituent part. Where 
the animals can find such a substance. 
Refer to the limestone rocks of coasts, and 
coating inside teakettle. "Whether this 
substance alone would make a good shell 
(too brittle). What more required — some 
substance not brittle, the reverse of brittle, 
to mix with it. Show glue. Let chil- 
dren recognize it as an animal substance, 
and show the quality on which its use as 
a constituent part of the shell depends. 



124 



OBJECTS. 



which lines these. The 
animals have the power 
of mending their shells 
when broken. The 
new pieces are bright- 
er in color than the 
old. 



III. Different hinds 
of Shells. — Shells are 
very numerous. There 
are many thousand 
different kinds. These 
are divided into three 
classes, viz. : — 

1, those of one piece ; 

2, those of two pieces ; 

3, those of three pieces. 



Tell children that the glue used to make 
the shell comes from the animal itself. Note 
the beauty and color of the various shells. 
Let the children name the colors, and try 
to account for their appearance. Give in- 
formation. Let them give examples of 
similar variations in other classes of Na- 
ture's works (birds, stones, &c). How 
the animal obtains the shell — it is part of 
itself; grows with it. Refer to broken 
shell. These objects, which are very liable 
to be broken, can be repaired. Appear- 
ance of the new piece on the shell. Refer 
to a new piece of material put upon an old 
garment, &c. 

III. — Bring the children specimens of 
each kind. Let them discover how they 
differ in structure, and classify accord- 
ingly. Matter of the lesson dictated by 
the children, and placed on the board. 



4. Sketch on Plants of the Cruciform Tribe. 



I. Structure. — In 
plants of this tribe the 
corolla is formed by 
four petals placed cross- 
wise ; hence the name. 
There are six stamens, 
four long and two short. 
The seed vessel is a 
pod, differing from that 
of the pea in having 
two partitions. 

II. Qualities . — 
These plants bear flow- 
ers of different colors. 
Brown, as the wall 



I. — Bring flowers of this kind before 
the children. Let them observe the dis- 
tinct parts of these. Direct special atten- 
tion to position of the petals. Refer to 
the derivation of the name, the number 
and length of the stamens, the compart- 
ments of the pistil. Let children name 
all cruciform plants they know. (W. B.) 



II. — Children, with reference to the list 
on the board, name the different colors of 
the flowers. Lead them to see that they 
have mentioned no blue flower : there is 



OBJECTS. 



125 



not one in the tribe. Let them describe 
the scent of any of these flowers when 
fresh. Refer them to the condition of 
water in which wall flowers have been 
kept, or in which cabbage has been boiled. 
Refer to the mustard plant, the chief qual- 
ity of mustard — pungency, leaving them 
to infer that all plants of the same kind 
partake of the same quality. 



flower ; pink or puce, 
as the stock; white or 
yellow, as mustard, 
turnip, radish. No 
flower of the tribe is 
blue, nor can any 
amount of cultivation 
produce a blue flower. 
The flowers have a 
sweet smell except 
when decayed, and 
then the smell is par- 
ticularly disagreeable, 
on account of the es- 
cape of a gas on which 
the characteristic quali- 
ties of these plants de- 
pend. They are all 
highly pungent, all 
wholesome, and even 
medicinal. 

III. Uses.— We 
cultivate some of these 
plants for their sweet 
smell, as the stock and 
wall flower ; some for 
food, as the cabbage 
and watercress, for 
their leaves ; the tur- 
nip and radish, for their 
roots ; some for what 
we call a relish, as 
mustard and horse rad- 
ish. All this food puri- 
fies the blood. Sailors, 
who take long voyages, 
and consequently suffer 
from scurvy, almost 
always find a plant of 
this tribe (Cocheleria) 
growing on the shores 
of uncultivated lands. 
They eat it, and this 
cures them. 

Summary. — Children reproduce the lesson from the heads. 



III. — Refer to the list on the board. 
Children mention the use of each separate- 
ly, then classify the uses. Bring out the 
distinctive use of mustard and horse radish, 
by asking if these would serve as the only 
vegetable at a meal. Explain the effect 
of eating only salted meat, and refer to the 
goodness of God in providing a cure. 



126 



OBJECTS. 



5. Sketch on Flavors. 



I. Flavors. 

1. Some things are 
sweet to the taste. 

2. Some things are 
luscious to the taste. 



3. Some things are 
bitter to the taste. 

4. Some things are 
acid to the taste. 

5. Some things are 
acrid or alkaline to the 

taste. 



6. Some things are 
saline to the taste. 



7. Some things are 
brackish to the taste. 



8. Some things are 
astringent to the taste. 



I. — 1. Developed by experiment with 
sugar. Children give the term. No defi- 
nition given. 

2. Developed by experiment with mo- 
lasses. Children describe the flavor. Term 
and general definition given : " Anything 
which is extremely sweet, is said to be 
luscious." 

3. Developed by experiment with qui- 
nine. Children give term. No definition 
given. 

4. Developed by experiment with cream 
of tartar. Children give the term. No 
general definition given. 

5. Developed by experiment with soda. 
Term and general definition given : "Any- 
thing that has a burning, bitter taste, is 
said to be acrid." Children told that soda 
is one of the substances called alkalies, 
whence we sometimes speak of its taste as 
alkaline. 

6. Developed by experiment with the 
blue and white papers called Seidlitz pow- 
ders, after the flavor of each powder has 
been separately ascertained. Term and 
general definition given: "Anything hav- 
ing the taste of salt is said to be saline." 
A saline substance can be obtained by 
combining an acid and an alkaline sub- 
stance. 

7. Developed by putting a little salt in 
water. Children describe the taste. Term 
and general definition given : " Anything 
that has a slightly salty taste, is said to be 
brackish." Eefer to springs in the desert. 

8. Developed by experiment with alum. 
Children describe the effect on the mouth. 
Term and general definition given : "Any- 
thing which draws up or contracts the 
mouth is said to be astringent." 



OBJECTS. 



127 



9. Some things are 
pungent to the taste. 



1 . Some things are 
aromatic to the taste. 



11. Some things are 
savory to the taste 



TT. — The sense by 
which we discover each 
of these qualities, we 
call taste ; the quality 
itself we call flavor. 



III. — Things having 
a flavor are said to be 
sapid. Things having 
little or no flavor are 
said to be insipid. 
Things having a highly 
agreeable flavor, are 
said to be delicious. 
Things having a dis- 
agreeable flavor are 
said to be nauseous. 



Summary. — 1. Children read the list of flavors, and in turn 
give examples. 

2. Teacher gives the definitions in any order, children giving 
the term which expresses each definition. 

3. Teacher erases the list of flavors, children supplying it. 



9. Developed by experiment with mus- 
tard. Children referred to scents of the 
same character. Give the term. General 
definition given : "Anything which has a 
hot, biting taste, is said to be pungent." 

10. Developed by experiment with cin- 
namon. Children being referred to scents 
of the same character, give the term. Gen- 
eral definition given: "Anything which 
has a hot, strong, pleasant taste, is said to 
be aromatic." 

11. Developed by reference to gravy, 
&c. Children describe the flavor. Term 
and general definition given : "Anything 
with a rich, saltish, pleasant taste, is said 
to be savory." 

II. — Developed by writing two sentences 
on the board, in each of which the word 
taste is used in a different sense. Children 
say how used. Are told that there is an- 
other word which expresses the quality, 
and what advantage there would be in 
using it. Teacher writes the general term 
flavor above the list of specific flavors, 
which have been written on the board as 
given. 

III. — Terms and definitions given, 
amples found by children. 



Ex- 



128 OBJECTS. 

4. Children add each of the definitions given to the corre- 
sponding term. 

The summary may he omitted until the next day, and used as 
an exercise on the previous lesson. 

6. Sketch of a Lesson on Qualities, discovered by the Sense of 
Feeling. 

1. Introductory. — Teacher refers the children to a former les- 
son, in which they have brought qualities of an object to the test 
of all their senses. Tells them that the subject of this lesson will 
be all the qualities they can discover by means of one sense — 
feeling. Let them name all the qualities they can think of. 
(W. B.) Teacher then engages them to try experiments, in 
order to find out what more can be known. 

II. — 1. Teacher blindfolds the first child. Presents him with 
a stone, cotton, water, tube, &c. He says : " By feeling, we can 
discover whether objects are hard, soft, liquid, or hollow." 

2. Teacher blindfolds second child, and presents him with a 
nutmeg grater, an oyster shell, a piece of carved wood, &c, who 
says : " By feeling, we can discover whether things are rough, 
smooth, level, or uneven." 

3. Teacher proceeds as before, by examining the contents of 
a box of solids, and comparing these with lumps of chalk. The 
third child says : " By feeling, we can- discover whether objects 
are edged, cubical, cylindrical, or (in fact) any regular form, or of 
an irregular form." 

4. Teacher presents measures of different lengths. The fourth 
child says : " By feeling, we can discover whether things are long 
or short, thick or thin, deep or shallow." 

5. Teacher places several similar objects at various distances. 
Fifth child says : " By feeling, we can discover whether things are 
near or far, and how far." [Exercise on the absolute distance, 
whether an inch or a foot.] 

6. Teacher places the same objects in different positions, and 
sixth child says : " By feeling, we can discover whether things are 
up or down, without, within, or between." 

7. Teacher presents a piece of sealing wax that has just been 



OBJECTS. 129 

used. Seventh child says: " By feeling, we can discover whether 
things are burning, hot, warm, lukewarm, cool, cold, or freezing." 

8. Teacher presents a sponge, before dipping it in water, and 
after wringing it ; an eighth child says : " By feeling, we can dis- 
cover whether things are dry, wet, or moist." 

III. — Children compare these ideas with those discovered by 
themselves at the beginning of the lesson. Teacher may do well 
to refer to the use of object lessons in giving accurate and sys- 
tematic knowledge, instead of the imperfect knowledge that is 
gathered from a merely superficial observation. 

IV. — Children led to find general terms inclusive of each set 
of the particular terms before used. They dictate what is to be 
put on the board, thus : 

By the sense of feeling, we discover, 

1. The Character of the Substance. 

2. The Character of the Surface. 

3. The Form. 

4. The Size. 

5. The Distance. 

6. The Position. 

V. The Condition, as to Temperature. 
8. The Condition, as to Moisture. 

7. Sketch of Lesson on an Egg. 

I. Shape. — An egg is oval, smaller at one end than the other. 
The word oval is derived from ovum, the Latin for egg. 

II. Parts — Order of Position and Formation.— An egg consists 
of several distinct parts : 1 , the shell ; 2, the skin between the 
shell and albumen, or the membrane ; 3, the albumen ; 4, the skin 
between the albumen and the yelk, or the envelope ; 5, the yelk ; 
6, the embryo. The order of the original formation of each part 
is exactly the reverse of the position. To these parts, though not 
as a distinct part, may be added the follicle. 

III. Use of each Part. — 1. The shell protects the interior 
parts. 2. The membrane is of use to strengthen the shell and to 
prevent injury to the yOung bird ; probably also to keep the exter- 
nal air from penetrating, and to keep the albumen from mixing 

6* 



130 OBJECTS. 

with the shell ere it becomes hardened by exposure. 3. The albu- 
men serves as nourishment for the young bird. 4. The envelope 
prevents the yelk from mixing with the albumen. 5. The yelk 
is the substance from which the bird is formed, as the albumen is 
the nourishment during formation. 6. The embryo is the yelk 
in process of formation. 7. The follicle contains the air for the 
use of the young bird. 

IV. Qualities on which Uses depend. — 1. Shell. — Advantages 
of the shape — being oval, it is not so likely to be broken as if it 
had corners. The shape also renders it more comfortable for the 
mother bird during the process of hatching, and more convenient 
to be turned over, that each part may receive equal warmth. 
This shape, too, suits that of the bird before it is fully developed, 
and admits of the little creature's free egress. 

2. Obvious Qualities of the Shell. — Hard, smooth, brittle, thin, 
porous. Hard, that it may keep its shape under pressure ; smooth, 
pleasanter to the touch — less liable to be broken when coming in 
contact with any roughness of the ground ; brittle, that egress may 
be afforded to the chick ; thin, for the same reason, and to pre- 
vent waste of material ; porous, to admit air. 

3. Qualities of the Membrane. — Tough, smooth. Tough, to 
strengthen the shell ; smooth, on account of the chick. 

4. Qualities of the Albumen. — Thick, glutinous, insipid ; is 
soluble in cold water, curdles in hot water. Effect of heat in 
hatching the bird, &c. 

5. Qualities of the Envelope. — Strong, thin, impervious. 

6. Qualities of the Yelk. — Sapid, colored. 

8. Sketch of Lesson on Writing Papier. 

I. — The children are desired to discover the qualities on which 
the use depends. It is smooth, in order that the pen may pass 
over it ; glossy, to prevent the ink from penetrating ; flexible, 
therefore easily folded into the form of a letter ; thin, therefore 
light; portable, therefore cheaper. 

II. Substitutes for Paper. — Tell the children that paper was 
unknown in ancient times. Let them say ^iow people could man- 
age when they wanted to send news — they could send messen- 



OBJECTS. 131 

gers. "Why this was not so good as writing notes — some trouble, 
and less certainty. But we have another use for paper. When 
war breaks out, or some great deed is done, we like to write it in 
a book, that it may be remembered. How people that had no 
paper could keep their records. Refer the children to what they 
have read in the Bible. The commandments were written on 
tables of stone. Joshua wrote a copy of the law on tables of 
stone. The high priest had an inscription on a gold mitre. 
Hezekiah desired that his writing tablets should be brought. 
Explain to the chidlren that the tablets used in those days were 
generally of wax. 

The rolls mentioned in the Bible were of parchment. Why 
called rolls? Children dictate the list of substances formerly used 
in lieu of paper — stone, metal, wax, parchment. Consider the 
comparative convenience of using each of these. Tell them that 
the Egyptians used something else. A plant used to grow on the 
banks of the great river which waters their country. The people 
took the bark of this, and pressed the edges together till they ad- 
hered. Whether the same thing could be done with narrow strips 
of paper ? Children mention things that will adhere, as postage 
stamps, &c. "What quality this bark must have possessed — it 
contained a sweet gum. Was called papyrus. Children say why 
the pieces of bark were allowed to adhere at the edges only. 
When a large sheet was formed, it was rubbed with a glass or 
metal ball. The use of this operation. 

III. Modern Paper. — Tell them that the first paper, properly 
so called, was made in Spain, of cotton wool, and afterward of 
woollen rags. The first mixture of linen rags was accidental ; but 
when it was discovered that paper was improved thereby, more 
linen rags were added next time, and so on until only linen was 
used, and the best paper produced as a result. In the reign of 
Henry III., a ship laden with this paper was wrecked off the coast 
of England. The booty was considered of so much importance, 
that several records are still in existence in which the fact is men- 
tioned. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the first paper mills 
were established in England. For a long time, only a little paper 
was used. W r hy so much more required now ? It was feared 
that there would not be enough nice white rags to make good 



132 OBJECTS. 

paper. An ingenious German — Schaffer — thought he would as- 
certain of what other substance paper could be made. Some he 
made of straw, some of vine tendrils, some of fibrous roots. In 
what these substances were alike. But soon after this another 
ingenious man found out, that by using a substance called chlo- 
rine, he could take the dye out of colored rags, and make them 
perfectly white. 

IV. Ancient Paper. — Refer again to the substitutes for paper 
formerly resorted to. Tell the children there was one nation 
which in ancient times used paper. Let them enumerate the 
ancient nations with which they have any acquaintance, as, Jews, 
Egyptians, Romans. "Whether it could be any of those, and why 
not ? Refer to the map, and point out China. Tell them that 
hundreds of years ago the Chinese were in the practice of 
making paper, by grinding the bark of a tree, and placing it in 
water. "When steeped to a pulp, it was poured into shallow 
moidds, placed one on the top of another, with a bulrush mat be- 
tween each mould, and a reed under each mat. These mats were 
raised every day, that the paper might dry gradually. Children 
to say the use of the mats, and the use of the reeds. Produce a 
specimen of rice paper, and explain how this is obtained. It is 
the pith of a water weed. In the finest specimens this is found as 
large as the thumb of a man. This is pared in a circular direction 
with a knife. 

9. Sketch on Comparison of Wine and Water. 



I. Qualities compared. 




Wine is 


"Water is 


1. Artificial. 


1. Natural. 


2. Colored. 


2. Colorless. 


3. Only semi-transparent. 


3. Transparent. 


4. Odorous. 


4. Inodorous. 


5. Sapid. 


5. Tasteless. 


6. Stimulating. \ 




7. Exhilarating. > 


6. Only refresh 


8. Nourishing. ) 




9. Astringent. 


7. Relaxing. 


10. Heating. 


8. Cooling. 



OBJECTS. 133 

II. How these Qualities in each Liquid render it useful to man. — 
Water must of necessity be natural, as such a quantity is needed 
by man for his use. It must be colorless, transparent, inodorous, 
and tasteless, otherwise it would not be pure, and consequently of 
little service, as it would destroy or detract from the taste of sub- 
stances with which it is mixed. Its cooling and refreshing quali- 
ties give it great advantages over any other liquid. The sapid, 
stimulating, exhilarating, and astringent qualities of wine, render 
it particularly useful to man. 

III. Hoxo these Liquids are obtained. — Spontaneous evaporation 
is the origin of any quantity of water. This is continually taking 
place from off the surface of seas, lakes, &c. : the vapors ascend, and 
form clouds ; these, on attaining a higher region, become condensed ; 
by the power of attraction they descend to the mountains, the 
particles become separated, and percolate into the earth; then the 
water, where it finds the least pressure, forces a passage ; a fissure 
is consequently made in the mountains, and a spring is thus origi- 
nated, which flows onward till obstructed ; at such a place the 
water accumulates, and ultimately gives rise to a river, which in 
its course is joined by others, and these continue their onward mo- 
tion till they are lost again in the mighty ocean. Then the same 
thing again occurs ; and therefore we may perceive, as it were, a 
complete revolution in the formation of water as used by man. 

To obtain wine, vines must first be planted. "When the fruit 
is sufficiently ripe, it is gathered, placed in large vessels, and 
pressed. Perforations in the bottom of the vessel allow the juice 
to flow out into another, from whence it is taken and casked. 
Then there is a fourfold repetition of this process : 1. The liquid 
becomes sweet ; this is the saccharine fermentation (example, 
wort). 2. This process evolves another substance, and we have 
the alcoholic fermentation ; in proportion to the quantity of alco- 
hol contained in the liquid, the next process is retarded. 3. It 
becomes sour ; this is the acetous fermentation. When a fourth 
change takes place, it is the symptom of decay and corruption, 
and is called the putrefactive fermentation. Wine is fit for use 
after the second fermentation. The wines of Hungary have been 
known to form so thick a crust around the inside of the cask, that 



134 



OBJECTS. 



the wood could be removed without causing the wine to flow 
out. 

IV. Qualities referred to in Scripture. 



WATER. 

1. Unstable. Gen. xlix. 4. 

2. A Solvent. Job xiv. 19 

3. Penetrating 

4. Reflective. 

5. Refreshing;. 



Ps. cxix. 18. 
Prov. xxvii. 19. 
Ps. xxiii. 2. 



6. Purifying. Ezek. xxxvi. 25. 



WINE, IN MODERATION. 

1. Cheering. Judges ix. 3. 

2. Gladdening. Ps. civ. 15. 

3. Strengthening. Cant. ii. 5. 

4. Medicinal. 1 Tim. v. 23. 



IN EXCESS. 

1. Intoxicating. Eph. v. 



18. 



2. Infuriating. Prov. xx. 1. 



Wine is rather typical — 1, of 
consolation ; 2, of the reviving 
and invigorating graces of the 
Spirit. 



Water is typical of regenera- 
tion and sanctification — cleansing 
and purifying in its nature. It 
is particularly typical of the work 
of the Holy Spirit, and is used 
in baptism. 

10. Sketches on the Bible. 

Having drawn from the class, by a few direct and simple ques- 
tions, that the Bible was not always a printed book — was not first 
written in English — was not bestowed on mankind at once, com- 
plete from Genesis to Revelation, but in detached parts; and hav- 
ing told them to consider the successive portions in which it was 
given, the languages in which it was first written, and the form in 
which it then appeared, the children ought to be in possession of 
most of the facts referred to ; therefore, during the greater part 
of the lessons, the business of the teacher would be to lead them 
to collect and arrange what they already know. 

I. — Scripture — in what portions giyen, and at what period. 

1. Possessors of Scripture — the Hebrew nation. Not when 
we first recognize it in Egypt, but previous to the settlement in 
Canaan. Date of this event. At that time the Israelites had the 
writings of Moses, probably including one or two of the Psalms, 



OBJECTS. 135 

and the Book of Job. Thence to the first captivity, they received 
successively the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Chron- 
icles, the writings of David, those of his son, a portion of the 
greater, and most of the lesser prophets. Date of the captivity. 
During that period, the remainder of the greater prophets, and two 
of the lesser prophets. After the return, the narratives of Ezra, 
Nehemiah, and Esther, with the three last prophetical books. 
Date of the return. 

2. Books of the New Testament period. Also considered 
with respect to writers, titles, and order. Date of conclusion of 
Scripture. Text learned : Hebrews i. 1 — " God, who at sundry 
times and in divers manners spake in times past unto the fathers 
by the prophets, hath in these last days spoken unto us by his 
Son." 

II. Language. — That in ivhicli Scripture was first written. — 
Translations. — 1. Every revelation prior to the date of the first 
Captivity made in Hebrew. This accounted for. Books of Daniel 
and Ezra written partly in Hebrew and partly in Chaldee. Lead 
the class to infer the probable reason of this, from consideration as 
to the subject of the portions written in Chaldee ; principally such 
as include original letters, decrees, &c, of the Babylonish and 
Persian Governments. Scriptures posterior to the date of the 
captivity written in Chaldee, and all the earlier books translated 
into the same tongue. No sooner did the ancient Hebrew become 
a dead language, than the Scriptures were put into the vernacular 
tongue by men, such as Ezra, acting under the immediate inspira- 
tion of God. Conclusion drawn from this, and text learned, 
showing the importance of understanding the "Word of God : 
1 Cor. xiv. 19 — " I had rather speak five words with my under- 
standing, that by my voice I might teach others also, than ten 
thousand words in an unknown tongue." 

2. The coming of the time in which the Gentiles were to be 
led to a knowledge of the truth, marked by the dispersion of the 
Scriptures among them. Providence of God shown in this. Its 
design and effect. Give general account of various translations, 
and particular one on the Septuagint. Refer to, and prove the 
importance of, the last translation. Refer to prevalence of the 



136 OBJECTS. 

Greek tongue in every part of the civilized world, as connected 
providentially with the publication of the Gospel in that lan- 
guage. 

To connect this period with what follows, touch very briefly 
on the general professions of Christianity. Division of the Ro- 
man Empire, and subsequent spread of the Greek and Roman 
Catholic Churches. Progress of the latter. Extent of her power. 
Change with respect to the language of the Bible. Scripture 
written in Latin throughout all the countries of the Western 
Empire. 

III. Forms under which the Scriptures have been presented at 
different periods. — 1. Derivation of the terms Bible and Scripture. 
Sacred words of the Jews' writings. Not books. Kind of ma- 
terials chiefly used, either parchment or vellum. Scroll — when 
not in use, rolled up on a slender cylinder, like a school map ; 
hence origin of the term volume. Refer to the Scribes. Their 
office. Importance and accuracy of their labors. 

2. Describe sacred records of Christians in the Middle Ages. 
Illuminated MSS. What they were. Why so called. Some- 
times rolls ; oftener books. Beauty and value of these copies. 
The copyists — what class of men they were. Their mode of 
life, position, and character, compared with that of the Jewish 
Scribes. 

3. Sacred records in the modern form. Class observe their 
own Bibles, and state how they differ externally from those before 
described. Why composed of many sheets bound together, not 
of one rolled up? Why made of paper rather than parchment? 
Why no longer MS. ? Give brief account of the invention of 
printing, and its immediate consequence — the great multiplication 
of copies. Effect of the distribution of these, all over the world. 
Specimens of Scriptural translations in one hundred and forty- 
eight languages, were to be seen at the Great Exhibition. Com- 
pare God's present method of making known Himself and His 
will, to that He adopted in the apostolic age. Then, supernatural 
gift of tongues, enabling the apostles so to preach that all could 
understand. Why necessary then ? Now, the same object effected 
without a miracle, by the translation of the Bible into different 



OBJECTS. 137 

languages, so that the nations may still say, " "We do hear them 
speak in our tongues the wonderful works of God." Acts ii. 11. 

IV. Unchangeableness of the Inspired Word — Its Influence. — 
Bible to be regarded as a perfect whole. The New Testament 
not an abrogation, but a development of the principles contained 
in the Old. Text: Matthew v. 17, 18. This might be proved by 
reference to the nature of God, but is evidently seen by the inva- 
riable influence of the Scriptures on the condition of man in all 
ages and countries. Compare the mental and moral condition of 
the Jews prior to their first captivity, with that of the nations 
surrounding them. Eefer to countries in which the Bible is 
unknown at this day ; without exception, utterly barbarous 
and degraded. Befer to countries in which its doctrines are re- 
jected, and yet, because the people have learned something of the 
historical events recorded in it, because its precepts (though their 
origin is not recognized) are interwoven with social laws, they 
take a far higher rank. Instance, Mohammedans. Befer to coun- 
tries in which the Scriptures are held to be true, and the people 
do not read them, because the ecclesiastical power has put a seal 
on the book ; these are better off than those before named, for 
they hear of the name, and know somewhat of the character of 
Jesus, and through the thick mists of tradition the light of the 
Word will sometimes shine. 

Conclusion drawn — that the Bible is a great engine of civiliza- 
tion, as well as the source of spiritual knowledge. Effect of its 
free circulation throughout our own land. Befer to the renovation 
now commenced in heathen lands, from the spread of the Scrip- 
tures and Scriptural teaching. Duty incumbent on us to place the 
Bible in the households of our own and other countries. We 
may anticipate the promised blessing, that they who water others 
shall themselves be watered. 



NUMBER. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

Lessons on Number introduce the pupil to subjects which 
afford a higher exercise of mental power than any of those which 
have hitherto engaged attention. 

In the study of the properties of number, Pestalozzi did not 
aim at the mere acquisition of the science, and. of mechanical dex- 
terity in calculation ; he considered the subject to be a valuable 
means of awakening intelligence, of forming the judgment, and 
of developing the reasoning faculty. His method of presenting 
the first principles of the science also differs greatly from that ordi- 
narily pursued ; he trained the mind to grasp the full perception 
of the value of numbers, by observation upon them as illustrated 
in surrounding familiar objects ; and when by this process the 
abstract idea was acquired, he then, but not till then, communi- 
cated the symbol by which it is conventionally represented. It 
was found that pupils trained on these principles were themselves 
enabled to deduce the practical rules of arithmetical calculation 
from the very examples on which their minds had been previously 
exercised. 

This may be a slow process ; but it has been well observed, 
that " when the true end of intellectual education shall be admit- 
ted to be, first, the attainment of mental power, and then the ap- 
plication of it to practical and scientific purposes, that plan of 
eariy instruction which dwells long on first principles, and does 
not haste to make learned, will be acknowledged as the most eco- 
nomical, because the most effectual." 



NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 139 

To some persons, the detail, the analysis, the repetition recom- 
mended in the following lessons, may seem wearisome ; and it is 
true, a careless or unobservant teacher may make a weariness of 
such instruction, and, indeed, of any other plan of education. 
But if those who have long understood the meaning of one, two, 
and three, were able to remember the mental process by which 
they themselves acquired their understanding of these numbers, 
they would find it was by some process not very dissimilar from 
that here recommended. It may be they were never taught on 
such a plan — truth was never thus clearly presented to the mind 
in its own natural simplicity, rising step by step into greater com- 
plexity ; it may be, that instead of learning such truth easily and 
surely, as those will do who are led through these lessons, they 
had to gather it here and there, under disadvantages of every 
kind, so that even still perhaps, the beautiful properties of num- 
bers, constantly as experience presents them, are but seen through 
a mist ; but it is indisputable, that any amount of clear perception 
such persons may have attained to, they have attained it by the 
fact of the mind, itself an observant faculty, having done for itself 
that which the teacher omitted to do for it, and having done it, 
also, by some such process as this, with the visible world for its 
book, and with God's gifts of observation and reflection for its 
ever willing guides. Remembering these things, the judicious 
teacher will guard against dwelling too long on these analytical 
lessons, using them just so long as there may be work to be done 
by them, while avoiding also the opposite extreme of rapid but 
unsound progression. 



FIEST STEP. 

The Humbers One to Ten. 

Object. — I. To lead the children to the perception of num- 
ber, by presenting it as it is exemplified in surrounding objects ; 
and to teach the word by which each number of which an idea 
has been gained, may be expressed. II. To teach the power and 



14:0 NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 

name of each number, when used as an ordinal. III. To exer- 
cise the mind on the numbers of which the knowledge has been 
attained, by exhibiting their gradual increase by ones, and by 
comparing their general magnitudes. 

Plan. — I. Successively develop the distinct perception of the 
value of numbers, beginning with one, and taking each number 
separately in its order as far as ten, by the exhibition of the cor- 
responding number of objects. Any convenient appliances,* such 
as books, balls, pebbles, slate-pencils, or marbles, may serve as 
illustrations. It is well that these should be diversified, that the 
child may the more clearly perceive that number is a property of 
all separate objects — of objects of all qualities, shapes, sizes, and 
colors alike. 

As clear perception is thus successively gained of each of the 
several numbers, the teacher should tell the name of the number. 
The class must then be practised in associating the number with 
its name. In carrying out this — 

1. The teacher gives the name, the children bring forward the 
corresponding number of objects. 

2. The teacher shows the children a definite number of ob- 
jects, requiring them to apply the name of the number to them. 

3. Lastly, the children enumerate or count from one to the 
number last attained, ascending ; and inversely from it to one, 
descending, again and again, till perfect in the exercise. 

II. The plan of teaching the powers and names of the num- 
bers when used as expressing order of time or of position, is given 
in II., p. 147, of this Step. 

I. — Examples of Lessons on this Plan. 

To develop the perception of the number expressed by the 
word One, and to communicate the name of the number. 

* Were the common ball-frame alone depended on for illustration, the chil- 
dren might be led to associate their ideas of number with one species of exclu- 
sive objects, and their attainment of the abstract idea of number, as a universal 
property of all objects, might be retarded. The true province of the ball-frame 
is rather to assist in working out some of the simple processes of calculation, 
when a notion of number in the abstract has been gained. 



NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 141 

This first lesson is most important, as it involves that which is 
the foundation of all number — the grand idea of One, or Unity. 
The teacher must not think the idea so simple as to need no illus- 
tration. 

The child should be led to appreciate the notion of this num- 
ber by the means already recommended. One object may be 
taken from many of its kind, and held before the class, or it may 
be placed in some unusual place, the teacher telling the children, 
even though they may already know the fact, that such a number 
of anything whatsoever is said to be one of it. The word should 
be applied to diverse objects, the children being allowed to de- 
scribe them. How many do I hold ? One. One of what ? One 
marble. And this ? One pencil. And this ? One book. A 
child may be told to bring one slate, or one ball, or to give one 
shout, one clap, &c. ; and the attention of each child may be 
guided to observation on itself as one separate individual, or to 
those objects in nature which exist in oneness, as one sun, one 
moon. 

A Lesson to Develop the Perception of the Number expressed hy the 
Word " Three,'' 1 and to Communicate the Name of the Number. 

The following sketch of a lesson will show the plan to be pur- 
sued with all the numbers as far as ten. 

Before commencing a lesson on a number which is new to the 
children, the teacher should ascertain that they have clear ideas of 
those on which they have already received instruction. In this 
instance it is supposed that the number two has been the subject 
of a lesson, and is thoroughly understood, and that the teacher 
tests this by directing one of the children to bring two pencils, or 
two books, &c, while the others look on observantly, and approve 
or otherwise, as the case may demand. If the requirement be 
rightly met, the class may simultaneously describe the objects as 
they are presented, saying, " Two pencils," " Two slates," " Two 
books," &c. Here also the objects should be diverse. 

With this attainment made, the class may be led on to the 
observation of the number three. 



142 NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 

• 

1. The teacher should now add one pencil to the two pencils, 
one slate to the two slates, or one book to the two books, and, as 
this is done, require the children to say, in each case, " Three pen- 
cils," " Three slates," " Three books," &c. As an exercise, groups 
of three of different objects may be placed before the class, and 
one of the children desired to bring a similar number of the same 
object, or of some other. When observation has been well exer- 
cised by varied examples of this kind, the children may again be 
told that such a number of any object whatever is called three of 
it, and that the name of that number is three. 

2. The teacher should then try to discover how far the chil- 
dren are able to connect the word three with the corresponding 
number, by calling upon several of them in rotation to bring three 
pencils, or three books, or three pins — to bring three of their com- 
panions to the teacher, to hold up three fingers, or to clap their 
hands three times, &c. 

3. The object of the next exercise is to ascertain whether the 
children can promptly apply the proper name to the number, when 
presented to them in different objects. The teacher may hold up 
three fingers, and ask how many are held up, and then take up 
three pencils, and again ask how many there are, or make three 
strokes upon the slate, and ask how many such a number of any- 
thing is said to be. 

It may confirm ideas already gained as to the succession of 
numbers, if the children are required to tell in regular succession 
those they have acquired, while the succession is enacted, as it 
were, by the teacher. Several sets of objects should be at hand, 
from each of which the teacher takes first one, then a second, then 
a third ; the children saying, as this is done, " One pencil," " Two 
pencils," "Three pencils;" "One pin," "Two pins," "Three 
pins," &c. 

This should be followed by an exercise in ascending and de- 
scending enumeration, thus : — 

" Now, all together say with me, One, two, three ; and again, 
Three, two, one. And now say the same without me, for I shall 
be silent." 

In these exercises, which will need frequent repetition, great 



NUMBER. FIKST STEP. 143 

care must be taken not to perplex the children ; the perception of 
number should be permitted to grow upon them almost without 
their being conscious of the attainment. It should be attained by 
simple observation, rather than by a process of reasoning, although 
it is true that at a further stage of the child's education it will be 
found that all the higher calculations of arithmetical reasoning are, 
in fact, based upon the knowledge for which it is the aim of these 
initiatory lessons to prepare. 

A right method of carrying out this early instruction in num- 
ber is so important, that it is thought advisable to introduce in this 
place the following notes of a lesson actually given by an experi- 
enced teacher to a class of very young children, on the develop- 
ment of the number four. The lesson was given in the presence 
of strangers, to whom the teacher gave the following introductory 
explanation of the plan to be pursued : — 

1. I shall exercise the children in the number three, to ascer- 
tain whether they have a correct idea of it. For example, I will 
call a child to bring me three pointers from among manv ; then 
three bottles, &c. To give the idea of four, I will add one pointer 
to the three pointers, one bottle to the three bottles, &c. 

2. To ascertain whether they connect the right idea with the 
name, I will ask them to bring me four pointers, four bottles, &c. 

3. To see if they can apply the names themselves, I will hold 
up four bottles, four pointers, &c, and require them to tell me 
how many there are. 

Lastly, I will make them go over together in succession, the 
numbers they have learnt, that they may obtain a clear perception 
of numeration ; as, "One bottle, two bottles," &c. ; and after this 
make them say, " One, two, three, four," several times. 

THE LESSON. 

Teacher. I should like a little child to bring me three bottles. 
Let Charles bring them. 

The child named brought two. 
T. Is he right ? Several. No. 



144 NUMBER. FIEST STEP. 

T. Who can do it ? Several. I can. 

A little boy rose at the bidding of the teacher, and brought 
another bottle to her, making up the number three. 

T. Now who can bring me three shells ? (pointing to some 
placed at a little distance.) Several. I can. 

T. Let Emma bring them. 

The little girl referred to brought the proper number. 

T. Now who can bring me three pointers ? A little girl. I 
can. 

The child rose, and brought the number of pointers required. 

T. Has she brought the right number ? All. Yes. 

T. Now some child bring me three stones. 

A little girl brought three stones. 

The teacher, finding that the children had a correct idea of 
three, placed before them the same objects in groups of four, and 
called upon them to repeat after her, " Four pointers." 

All. Four pointers. 

The words were repeated three or four times. 

T. Now say, " Four stones." All. Four stones. 

The same repetition took place as in the case of the bottles 
and shells. 

The teacher's next point was to ascertain whether, when she 
used the name four, the children connected the right idea with 
the name. 

T. "Who can bring me four pointers ? A little girl. I can. 
1 The child rose, and brought them to the teacher. 

T. How many pointers are there here ? All. Four. 

T. Then did Lizzy bring the right number ? Three or four 
voices. Yes. 

T. Now I should like to have four bottles. 

A little boy rose, and brought three to the teacher. 

T. Is he right ? Several voices. No. 

T. Who can make the number to be four ? A little hoy. I 
can. 

He then rose, and brought one bottle more. 

T. Now, how many bottles are there ? Several voices. Four. 

71 Who can bring me four shells ? A little boy. I can. 



NUMBER. FIKST STEP. 145 

He brought them to the teacher. 

T. Is he right ? Many voices. Yes. 

The same thing was repeated in the case of four stones : 
" One stone, two stones, three stones, four stones ;" " One bottle, 
two bottles, three bottles, four bottles," &c. 

The teacher's third point was to find if the children could 
themselves correctly apply the name. To do this, he called upon 
them to pick up four shells, four stones, &c, which they did cor- 
rectly. They then practised numeration up to the point they had 
reached, to obtain an accurate perception of the increase of num- 
bers, saying after the teacher : " One stone, two stones, three 
stones, four stones ;" " One bottle, two bottles, three bottles, four 
bottles ;" " One, two, three, four." 

T. Now, Thomas {addressing one of the children), can you 
bring me four children ? four who are sitting up nicely. 

The little boy spoken to, rose, selected three, and led them to 
the teacher. 

T. Well, Thomas, have you brought four ? Thomas. Yes. 

T. (to all). Thomas says he has brought four children ; are 
there four here ? Nearly all. No. 

T. Let us count them : one child, two children, three chil- 
dren. Let me have four, Thomas. 

He brought another boy, who walked before the rest to take 
his place by their side. 

T. (to all). Should he have gone in front of the other chil- 
dren ? Two or three voices. No. 

T. Certainly not ; he should have come round behind them. 

The child was then led round, and placed by the side of the 
three children. 

T. Now say, " One child, two children, three children, four 
children." This was done. 

T. Now let three children go to their seats. Now one child. 

The children then went to their seats. 

T Who can show me four fingers ? 

A little boy held up all the fingers and the thumb of both 
hands. 

T. (to all). Are there only four there? Several voices. No. 
1 



146 NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 

T. See what a number of fingers! How many did I ask 
for ? Several voices. Four. 

The teacher then counted four on her own fingers. 
T. Now, Emily, show me four. 

The little girl addressed held up that number of fingers. 
T. How many does she hold up ? Four. 

It is unnecessary to pursue these detailed lessons further. In 
working out the idea of. the higher numbers, it is necessary sim- 
ply to adhere to the plan here recommended, adding one addi- 
tional marble, pebble, or book, to the group last considered, recog- 
nized, and named, the teacher then calling on the class to form 
successive groups of objects, to the numbers of which the names 
four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, and ten are applicable ; and then 
requiring the children themselves to give the proper name, as 
groups of objects containing such numbers are successively pre- 
sented to them, concluding the lesson by ascending and descend- 
ing enumeration. 

It must be left to the discretion of the teacher where to put a 
limit to lessons such as these. " The degree of power in children, 
and the time of development, are so various, that nothing but 
careful observation can make the teacher aware what time or 
labor each step will require, before it is thoroughly understood by 
the pupil." One child will be embarrassed when required to tell 
the number of ten or twenty objects which lie before him, while 
another will determine it at a glance. In one of these cases the 
power of perception needs to be developed by a patiently con- 
ducted gradual process ; in the other it will steadily acquire in- 
creased scope as larger numbers are presented to the child's obser- 
vation. As a general rule, the number ten should be the limit of 
these initiatory lessons on number for some considerable time. 

II. — The Order of Numbers. 

The object of this lesson is to bring oxit the relation in which 
numbers stand to each other when used as ordinals, and when the 
perception has been awakened, to communicate the name applied 



NUMBER. FIKST STEP. 147 

to each number when so used. It is manifest that, though closely 
allied to the abstract value of a number, its power as an ordinal is 
a relative quality. The number three is always three, under all 
possible circumstances ; but an object is third, only when some 
other is second; and that object again is second, because some 
other separate object is first in order. The idea of three is quite 
unchangeable, but the notion of third is mutable, as regards the 
object which for the time is qualified by the word ; for the object 
which is third may be made the second, or the first ; and the 
object which is first, may be made second, third, fiftieth, &c, infi- 
nitely. These facts deserve a distinct lesson for their elucidation, 
lest the mind should indulge an ill-defined perception of a well- 
defined truth. "When, also, each new property of numbers is thus 
made the subject of concentrated attention, the mind gradually 
gains power to think with vigor, to rely on its own attainments, 
and to apply the knowledge gained with accuracy and precision. 
If, however, the teacher should not consider the children suffi- 
ciently advanced for these lessons, the Exercises, No. III., page 
149, may precede them ; and even addition may be commenced 
upon before they are given. 

A Lesson to Develop the Idea of the Order of Succession in Num- 
bers, as First, Second, Third, &c, to Tenth. 

In giving this lesson, as is suggested in "First Ideas on Num- 
ber," a small ladder containing but ten " rounds " may be used for 
illustration. This, being a new object, will arrest attention. It is 
also an extremely appropriate object for such a purpose. 

The children should first count the rounds or steps ; they 
should then be led to observe their order. If a boy wished to 
mount this ladder, what would he first do? He would put his 
foot on the step. On which ? "Would you say on the one step ? 
No, teacher ; on the first step. And then on the two step ? No ; 
on the second. And so on, to the tenth. When would you say, 
" One step, two steps, three steps," &c. ? When simply counting 
how many there are. And when would you say, " First step, 
second step," &c. ? When using the steps in going up or 



148 NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 

down, or when thinking of them as coming before or after each 
other. 

If these ordinal names are already known to the children, as 
some of them will probably be, the teacher will merely have to 
superintend the correct application of them. If, however, they 
are not known, as may be the case with very young children, one 
child may be called out and placed in front of the class, ready, 
when directed by the teacher, to place his hand on each round, 
beginning with the lowest, as he supposes himself climbing to the 
top. As each round is touched, the teacher may give its ordinal 
name of first, second, third, fourth, &c, to tenth, the whole class 
pronouncing it after her. After several repetitions of this ascend- 
ing process, the descending enumeration may begin, and be fol- 
lowed out in the same way. The teacher may then vary the 
exercise by enumerating from first to tenth, and from tenth to 
first, immediately. After this the teacher should require the chil- 
dren to give the ordinal name of each step when pointed out by 
another. 

The attainments of the children may be tested, by their being 
required to lay the hand upon any round named by another, and 
again to give the name of any round on which the teacher places 
the hand. They may be asked to say what is the name of that 
step which is above the second, and of that below it ; and then to 
give the name of each alternate step, beginning with the first, so 
as to elicit the series — first, third, fifth, seventh, ninth ; and then 
starting from the second, so as to produce the series — second, 
fourth, sixth, eighth, tenth. This may be done also in descending 
order, beginning consecutively with tenth, and ninth. 

In applying the ordinals to other groups of objects, an attrac- 
tive illustration might be afforded by placing a class of ten 
children in front of the gallery, in which the relative position of 
each individual might be ascertained and described. Small ob- 
jects, which may be easily moved from place to place, and put in 
a variety of relative positions, are most useful in lessons such as 
these. The number of the objects presented should be first deter- 
mined, and then their relative position. One of them may then 
be moved into a new place. The effect upon the whole series, as 



NUMBER FIRST STEP. 



149 



well as upon the single object moved, will attract attention, and 
deepen impressions already made. 

A few original miscellaneous questions may now be asked, as 
tests of acquirement. 

"What is the first meal of every day? What the second? 
"What the third ? 

In what place does this child stand in this class ? &c. 



III. EXEECISES. 

This First Step may conclude with the following series of ex- 
ercises, which are valuable as affording practice on the numbers 
which the children have learnt to distinguish and to express by 
name. 

The Gradual Increase of Numbers from One to Ten. 

To lead the children to form an accurate idea of the increase 
of numbers, the teacher should draw lines on the slate in the fol- 
lowing order, and afterward call on the children to name the num- 
bers as they are successively pointed to, and to say how two is 
formed by adding one to one, three by adding one to two, &c. : — 






The teacher may then point to any number, asking the chil- 
dren to name it, and then to tell what is the number next above 
it, and what the next below it. 

Again, a number may be mentioned, and the children required 
to say what numbers are next to it, above and below. 



150 NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 

The children may then be called on to state, first by means of 
strokes, and then in words, what number is between any two num- 
bers named ; as, what numbers there are between seven and nine ; 
four and six ; eight and ten, &c. 

Lastly, the teacher should lead the children to see that num- 
bers naturally increase by unity, and that each number above unity 
is greater by one than that preceding it. This will prepare the 
way for the process of addition : thus, one and one are two, two 
and one are three, three and one are four, four and one are five, 
&c, to ten. Again : two is one and one, three is two and one, 
four is three and one, &c, to ten ; or, two is one more than one, 
three is one more than two, four is one more than three, &c. ; or, 
in inverse order, ten are nine more one, nine are eight more 
one, eight are seven more one, seven are six more one, &c, to two. 

Comparison of Numbers with each other as to their General 
Magnitude. , 

Exercises. — It is not here intended to measure the actual 
amount of difference between numbers, but only to compare them 
with each other as to their general magnitude. 

In three and four, which is the greater ? 

And in two and six ; in three and five ; in four and eight ; in 
eight and nine ? &c. — which is in each case the greater number ? 

Tell me a number which is more than three. 

Now name a number that is more than six ; another greater 
than eight, &c. 

Tell me a number that is less than eight. 

Another that is less than six, five, and three, respectively. 

Tell me all the numbers you know that are less than five, four, 
six, eight, one, &c. 

Now tell me all the numbers you know that are more than 
five, four, six, eight, one, &c. 

Four, two, six — which is the least of the numbers I have 
named? Which is the largest? Then two is the smallest, or 
least of the three, and six is the largest of the three. Now what 
can I say about the four ? That it is larger than the least of the 



NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 151 

three, and smaller than the largest of the three ; for these reasons 
it is called the mean, or middle number. 

Tell me a mean number between three and five ; between four 
and eight, five and seven, two and eight, eight and ten, seven and 
nine, &c., respectively. 

Illustrations. — I had eight apples, and my brother six ; 
which of us had the greater number ? 

That child is five years old, and the one next him is seven ; 
which is the elder ? 

If one child sleep eight hours, and another ten hours, which 
of them sleeps the longer ? 

It is four miles from Oswego to Scriba, and ten miles from 
Oswego to New Haven ; which of these two places is the greater 
distance from Oswego ? 

The teacher should ask a variety of questions such as these. 
They may be invented as they are needed. 

Addition and Subtraction. 

Object. — To teach the addition and subtraction of numbers 
under ten. 

Plan. — This is exemplified in detail in the exercises which 
follow. 

It is clear that the simple enumeration of a series of numbers 
gradually increasing by one, call the process by what name we 
please, is in fact an exercise in the addition of one, and that the 
simple enumeration of a similar series in descending order, is in 
fact the subtraction of one. Hitherto, however, the gradual in- 
crease or decrease of numbers has been presented as a matter of 
sensible perception, rather than as an appeal to the reasoning 
faculty of the mind. "While, however, it is almost impossible, and 
perhaps equally undesirable, to separate these two processes, it is 
important that the child should now be taught to use those num- 
bers of which he has gained a clear perception, in a manner more 
allied to an act of reasoning. Neither will it do for him to enu- 
merate by ones all his life ; he must learn to bound over the 
minute intervals which separate one number from another, and 



152 NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 

still to be sure of his ground. He must learn to be as ready in 
enumerating, ascending and descending, by nine, as he is in enu- 
merating by one. This facility is to be attained by a graduated 
series of exercises, with the aid of objects, which shall make each 
step sure before a further step is ventured upon. 

ADDITION. 

1. The Addition of the Number One. 

The children are supposed to have become familiar with the 
increase of numbers from one to ten, as carried out practically by 
the exhibition of objects. Lines should now be drawn on the 
slate in the order indicated by the following table, the children 
observing and describing each line as it is constructed : 



| and | are? 

| | and | are? 

| I I and | are? 

| | I I and | are? 

to 

| | | | | | I and | are? 



The teacher, drawing two lines, says : " One line and one 
line are ? " The children take up her words, and complete 
the sentence : " One line and one line are two lines." Again : 
"Two and one are?" "Three;" and so on, to "Nine and 
one are ten." Their answers may be written in strokes as they 
are given, each opposite its component numbers. 

The teacher should now exercise the children in the addition 
of the number one to other numbers without the use of objects or 
strokes; bringing these forward, however, when necessary to prove 
the correctness of calculations, or to detect errors. 

The subject may now be illustrated by some miscellaneous 
questions, such as the mind of an apt teacher will at once be able 
to propose. A few examples are given : 

James has one orange. If I give him one more, how many 
will he then have ? 

Jane has eight walnuts. If her father give her one more, how 
many will she have ? 



NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 



153 



A boy had two rabbits given to him. His father bought him 
one more ; how many had he ? 

A baby had nine teeth. One day, another came ; how many 
teeth had the baby in all ? 

2. The Addition of Two. 

The mind of the child, having acquired the power of adding 
one once, will now be prepared to add it twice ; for into this the 
addition of two resolves itself. 

The teacher should arrange objects, or draw lines on the slate, 
in the following order : 

I 
I 



I I 

I I I 

I I I I 



The children being required to repeat together, first with the 
use of the lines, and then without : 

" One line and two lines are three lines ; 

Two lines and two lines are four lines ; 

Three lines and two lines are five lines ;" 
to 
" Eight lines and two lines are ten lines." 



The teacher should then question the children individually 
upon the lesson, without any reference to order of numbers, 
avoiding any result exceeding the number ten. 

Here, also, a few practical questions should be put to the class, 
as in the addition of one : 

Three boys were going to school. Two others joined them ; 
how many boys were there then ? 

Two little girls went to buy bread. One of them carried home 
four loaves, the other two loaves ; how many loaves had they in 
all? 

5r* 



154 



NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 



In a working-man's cottage there are three rooms on the 
ground floor, and two rooms up stairs ; how many rooms does the 
cottage contain ? 

The apt teacher will invent many other simple illustrative 
questions of this kind, until the class has had sufficient practice. 

3. Addition of Three. 

This is to be taught on the same plan. 

The teacher arranges objects, or draws lines on the blackboard, 
in the following; order : 



I 

I I 

I I I 

I I I I 

I I I I I 

I I I I I I 



The children then say together, as each line is pointed to . 
" One line and three lines are four lines ; 
Two lines and three lines are five fines ; 
Tliree fines and tfiree lines are six lines ;" 

and so on, to ten lines. 

Tfie children should then, as before, recapitulate the lesson, 
without reference to the objects or lines on tfie board. In doing 
tfiis, tfie word lines, &c, may be omitted, saying only, " One and 
three are four ; two and three are five ; three and three are six," 
&c. ; only do not suggest the answer to the children, nor lead on 
too rapidly. 

After this repetition, as in every other lesson of this kind, 
the teacher should energetically question the children individually 
upon it, introducing also questions bearing upon the instruction 
given in preceding lessons on the same subject. The necessity of 
this cannot be too strongly impressed upon the minds of teachers. 
A few practical illustrations are given by way of example : 

A boy has two cents. His uncle gives him three cents ; how 
much has he then ? 

There are five apples in a basket ; fiow many will tfiere be, if 
I put in tfiree apples more ? 



NUMBKK. iOKST STEP. 155 

I gave a boy six cents yesterday, and I have given him three 
cents to-day ; how many cents have I given" him in all ? 

A boy, fond of playing at marbles, has a hole in the pocket in 
which he keeps them. He lost seven marbles last night, and three 
this morning ; how many has he lost ? 

4. Addition of Four, Five, Six, Seven, Eight, and Nine. 

These operations need no further illustration ; the plan adopted 
is the same as with the previous numbers. The teacher must care- 
fully avoid advancing too rapidly, and must not be weary under 
the frequent repetition of previous instruction. It must be con- 
stantly borne in mind, that as the children are supposed to know 
little or nothing, as yet, of any number more than ten, all opera- 
tions are to be so adapted as to involve no higher number. 

ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE FOREGOING EXERCISES. 

The scope afforded by the preceding lessons is so narrow, that 
it is found difficult in actual practice to extend the instruction upon 
them to that point which nevertheless must be reached, if they are 
to be fully comprehended and indelibly fixed on the mind. 

The following exercises have been devised in order to meet 
this difficulty. They will be found useful, as presenting the num- 
bers to the observation of the children in new aspects, and as exer- 
cising their faculties upon them in a manner less formal and me- 
thodical than the lessons already given, whilst at the same time 
the operation of addition is adhered to. 

1. To FIND WHAT NUMBER MUST BE ADDED TO A GIVEN NUM- 
BER IN ORDER TO PRODUCE A THIRD NUMBER. 

In some of the above lessons on this Step, two numbers have 
been given, and the children required to find a third number which 
should be the sum of both. 

In the following exercise two numbers are given, the one being 
always larger than the other, and the children are required to find 
what number must be added to the smaller number to make it 
equal to the larger number. 

The use of objects or lines must be continued. Suppose the 



156 NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 

given numbers to be two and three, the teacher arranges objects 
or strokes thus : 

II III 

and asks, " How many strokes must I add to the first of these 
groups, in order to make it equal to the second of them ? " The 
teacher may proceed : " "What must I add to two lines, in order 
to make three lines ? " or, " "What must I add to two, if I wish 
to make it three ? " 

This method must be pursued with all the numbers up to ten, 
those numbers being commenced with which present the difference 
of one. After this, those exhibiting a difference of two ; this pro- 
gression being maintained till ten is reached. As the lessons pro- 
ceed, the objects or fines may to some extent be laid aside, and 
referred to chiefly for correction of error, or for proof of accuracy. 

Examples. 

To find what must be added to a number to produce another 
number larger than the first by one: 

To five to produce six ? 

" SIX " SEVEN? 

" SEVEN " EIGHT ? 

" THREE " FOUR ? &C 

To find what must be added to a number to produce another 
number larger than the first by two : 

To two to make it four ? 
" four " six? 

" FIVE " SEVEN? 

" EIGHT " TEN ? &C 

To produce another number larger than the first by three : 
To three to form SIX ? 

" FOUR " SEVEN ? 

" FIVE " EIGHT ? 

" SEVEN " TEN? &C 



NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 157 

Larger than the first by four : 

To two to form six? 

" FOUR '' EIGHT ? 

'* FIVE " NINE ? 

" SIX " TEN ? &C. 

2. The producing a new number by combining two 
other numbers. 

Examples. ' 
To produce the number four in every possible mode : 
In the first place, the teacher questions the children in such a 

manner as to lead them to dispose objects, or to draw lines on the 

board, according to the following arrangement : 

III I 

II II 

I III 

The class, with their attention closely directed to this arrange- 
ment, is then to be required to repeat aloud : 

" Four lines are formed by 

" Three lines and one line. 
Two lines and two lines. 
One line and three fines." 

The children should then be required to describe from memory 
the various modes of producing the number four, after which they 
may be called upon singly to come forward and construct the 
number four in every practicable manner, with objects or by lines. 
i 

To produce five in the same manner : 

Here also the children should first be led to the construction 
of the lesson with something they can handle, or examine by the 
eye. In the present case the arrangement will be this : 



1 1 1 1 

1 1 1 


1 

1 1 


III 

1 1 


1 1 

1 1 1 


1 


1 1 1 1 



158 NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 

To be read as before. Suppose the construction to be of 
books : 

" Five books are formed by 

" Four books and one book. 
Three books and two books. 
Two books and three books. 
One book and four books." 

This to be followed by the repetition from memory : " Four 
and one are five ; three and two are five ; two and three are five ; 
one and four are five." 

To produce the number six on the same plan : 

" One and five are six. 
Two and four are six. 
Three and three are six. 
Four and two are six. 
Five and one are six." 

To produce the number seven : 

" Six and one are seven. 
Five and two are seven. 
Four and three are seven. 
Three and four are seven. 
Two and five are seven. 
One and six are seven." 

These lessons should be extended to the number ten, each 
of them to be followed by a variety of illustrative examples for 
practice ; such, for example, as the following : 

I buy a book for eight cents. If I cannot pay for it in one 
payment, in how many ways can I pay for it in two pay- 
ments ? 

A boy has to visit his aunt, who lives at a town nine miles 
from his home. His mother tells him he may rest for an hour 
once on the way. If he rest at the fourth milestone, how many 



NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 159 

miles will he have to walk when he sets off again ? How many 
if he rest at the fifth ? At the sixth ? At the seventh ? 

3. The simple addition of three or four numbers, or 

MORE. 

The use of objects or lines should at first be adhered to in this 
exercise also, and the children should repeat aloud the given num- 
bers, as well as each successive step of the process. Thus, sup- 
posing the numbers given to be two, three, and four, they should 
say: 

" Two and three more are five ; five and three more are 
eight ;" or, " Three and three are six ; six and four are ten." 

When the class has had some practice in this kind of addition, 
the teacher may slowly pronounce the given numbers, and the 
class be required to give the final sum only, the intermediate re- 
sults being omitted. 

The addition of other numbers is to be carried out on the same 
plan. The exercises on this head will of necessity be limited, as 
no result exceeding ten should be attempted ; but they may be 
varied, and many examples given of the same nature as those 
before introduced. 

4. The producing a fixed number by combining three 
other numbers. 

These exercises are to be illustrated in the same manner as 
those on the combination of two numbers. Where objects are 
used, the teacher may put them together as the children audibly 
perform the addition. Two examples of this exercise may suffice. 

To produce the number seven by every possible combination of 
three numbers : 

The arrangement of lines or of objects will be this : 

I I I I I I I = I I I I I I I 

I II I I I I = I I I I I I I 

I Ml I I I = I I I I I I I 

II M III = I I I I I I I 



160 NUMBER. — FIRST STEP. 

To produce the number ten : 

One and two and seven are ten. 



One " 


three 


(i 


six 


ii 


ten. 


One " 


four 


a 


five 


u 


ten. 


Two " 


three 


« 


five 


u 


ten. 


Three " 


three 


<< 


four 


a 


ten, 


Four " 


four 


ii 


two 


u 


ten. 


Six " 


two 


<( 


two 


(i 


ten. 



"When the lines have been gone over in this order, it may 
be useful, without changing the position of the strokes on the 
board, to calculate each line backward, reading the top line of the 
second table, for instance, thus : " Seven and two and one are 
ten," &c. 

The producing a number by the combination of four numbers, 
will suggest itself to the teacher, as a simple extension of the 
method recommended above. 

Each separate exercise should be illustrated by examples hav- 
ing an application to visible objects and the events of every-day 
life. 

SUBTRACTION. 

The children, having acquired facility in increasing numbers, 
by combining them in the process of addition, must now be led on 
to the equally important operation of separating them in the pro- 
cess of subtraction. The use of objects must still be continued. 
The lessons in addition having been entered into at so much 
length, that which follows will be given more briefly. The 
teacher must not, however, suppose that the same patient repeti- 
tions, the same varied examples, are not necessary. Very young 
children cannot be well taught in any other way. 



NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 



161 



1. TO TAKE ONE GIVEN NUMBER FROM ANOTHER. 

The Subtraction of the Number One : 



I 

I I 

I I 1 

I I I I 



I I 

I I I 

I I I I 



Objects are to be arranged, or strokes to be made on the board, 
in the order indicated by the column on the left. The teacher 
should then remove one object to a little distance, or rub out one 
stroke from each line of strokes successively, the children repeating 
aloud, as this is done, " Two less one is one ; three less one are 
two," &c, through the whole series of subtractions, and leaving 
the objects as represented in the right column ; or, if lines are 
used, leaving the column on the right everywhere diminished by 
one. 

It is important, as an exercise, that the operations of addition 
should be constantly returned to, and it is found in practice desir- 
able to combine them with those of subtraction, as helping to a 
clearer comprehension of both processes. To effect this, after the 
above lesson on subtraction has been given, it may be recapitu- 
lated, or a second lesson may be given, with the additional exer- 
cise of recombining the numbers which have been separated by 
subtraction ; thus : 



Two less one is one. 
Three less one are two. 
Four less one are three. 

Ten less one are nine. 



to 



One and one are two. 
Two and one are three. 
Three and one are four, 

Nine and one are ten. 



After this lesson the children should be separately questioned 
on it, and exercised in its application to objects of daily use. 



162 NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 

The subtraction of two should now be taught by objects or 
strokes, as in the case of the subtraction of one, and, after that, 
the subtraction and addition of two in one operation, thus : 

Ten less two are eight. Eight and two are ten. 

Nine less two are seven. Seven and two are nine. 

Eight less two are six. Six and two are eight, 

to 

Three less two are one. One and two are three. 

The subtraction of three, followed by the addition and sub- 
traction of three in one operation : 

Ten less three are seven. Seven and three are ten. 

Nine less three are six. Six and three are nine, 

to 
Four less three are one. One and three are four. 

Every successive number must be treated in the same manner 
till the number nine is reached, each lesson being frequently re- 
peated, and each being illustrated by questions involving the prac- 
tical application of the number under consideration. 

2. Subtraction and recombination of several numbers 
in succession. 

To subtract in succession the numbers one, two, three, and 
four, from the number five, recombining each by addition : 

Five less one are four. Four and one are five. 

Five less two are three. Three and two are five, &c. 

To subtract the numbers one to five from six : 

Six less one are five. Five and one are six. 

Six less two are four. Four and two are six, &c. 

The intermediate numbers to be similarly treated, as far as the 
subtraction of the numbers one to nine from ten : 

Ten less one are nine. Nine and one are ten. 

Ten less two are eight. Eight and two are ten, 

to 

Ten less nine are one. One and nine are ten. 



NUMBER. FIRST STEP. 163 

This exercise should be followed by a series of miscellaneous 
questions. 

3. To FIND WHAT NUMBER MUST BE TAKEN FROM A GIVEN 
NUMBER IN ORDER TO REDUCE IT TO ANOTHER GIVEN NUMBER. 

It will be seen that this lesson is the inversion of one of the 
exercises in addition. The teacher should draw two groups of 
lines on the slate, or arrange two sets of objects in unequal num- 
ber, and require the children to decide how many must be taken 
from the larger number to make it equal the smaller number. The 
subtraction should also be practically carried out, that the result 
may be seen to be accurate. Begin with numbers having the dif- 
ference one, increasing the difference progressively. 

Examples. 

What number must be taken from the number ten, to make it 
nine ? eight ? seven ? — to one, successively. 

What number must be taken from the number nine, to reduce 
it to seven ? five ? &c. 

What from eight, to reduce it to five ? three ? two ? &c. 

The teacher must be careful that a sufficient number of exam- 
ples are given and well understood before proceeding to a new 
lesson.^ 

4. The comparing two numbers in order to find their 
difference. 

This idea may be developed by simple questions. A few ex- 
amples are given : 

You have four apples, your brother has five apples ; which of 
you has the more apples ? 

But if you have five marbles, and your brother four marbles, 
how many more have you than he ? 

If you have six peaches, and he four peaches, how many more 
peaches have you than he ? 

Objects may then be arranged on the table, or lines drawn on 



164: NUMBER. — FIRST STEP. 

the slate in two groups, one containing five, the other four. The 
class may repeat, " Five is one more than four ; four is one less 
than five." One by one the number may be diminished, the class 
in each instance explaining the result ; thus : 

Comparison of five with all numbers below it : 

Five is two more than three. 
Three is two less than five. 
Five is three more than two. 
Two is three less than five, &c. 

Comparison of seven with all numbers below it : 

Seven is one more than six. 
Six is one less than seven. 
Seven is two more than five. 
Five is two less than seven. 
Seven is three more than four. 
Four is three less than seven. 

The word " difference " may be used as these exercises become 
familiar : — " The difference between seven and six is one ; the dif- 
ference between seven and five is two," &c. 

5. The subteaction of a given number from the unex- 
pressed SUM OF TWO OTHER GIVEN NUMBERS. 

Take six from the sum of five and five. 



" nine 


it 


three and seven. 


" three 


it 


six and six. 


" five 


(C 


eight and two. 


" eight 


If 


six and four. 


" six 


ff 


four and four. 


" four 


If 


seven and three, &c 



These examples may be varied to a great extent, at the discre- 
tion of the teacher. They should be followed by a series of well- 
adapted miscellaneous practical questions. 



number.. — first step. 165 

6. The subtraction of a given number from the unex- 
pressed SUM OF THREE OTHER GIVEN NUMBERS. 

Take six from the sum of three, three, and three. 
" five " three, four, and three. 

" four " seven, two, and one. 

" seven " six, two, and three, &c. 

7. The subtraction of the sum of two low numbers 
from the sum of two numbers of higher value. 

From the sum of six and four take that of five and three. 
'• six and three " four and two. 

" five and five " four and four, &c. 

8. The subtraction of the sum of three low numbers 
from the sum of two numbers of higher value. 

From four and five take two, two, and two. 
" six and three " three, two, and one. 
" four and four " two, three, and two. 
" three and five " one, four, and two, &c. 

9. Promiscuous additions and subtractions. 

Add seven to two, and take away five. 
" six to three, four, &c. 

From the sum of seven and two take away six. 

" five and three " four, &c. 

At first, these exercises should, as far as possible, be carried 
out with the use of objects or lines, and the teacher should be 
careful not to discontinue the use of these too soon. A variety of 
miscellaneous questions, bearing upon all the lessons hitherto given 
under the heads of addition and subtraction, should be introduced 
before the next Step is commenced upon. 



166 NUMBER. — FIRST STEP. 

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION. ONE TO TEN. 

Multiplication. 

Object. — To lead the children to the comprehension of the 
operation of multiplying numbers into each other, to prove to< 
them that this is but a simplification and abbreviation of the pro- 
cess of addition which they have already acquired, and to make 
them familiar with the arrangement of numbers called the Multi- 
plication Table. 

Plan. — Illustrate the subject by means of objects or lines, as 
indicated in the following outline : 

In the process of addition the children have learnt to find a 
new number, which is the sum of two, three, or four numbers, 
which may be of differing value. They are now to be taught to 
find the result of taking one and the same number a given num- 
ber of times. Make one stroke on the large slate, and ask, "What 
have I done ? You have made one stroke. How many times 
have I made it ? You have made one stroke once. What num- 
ber do I get when I make one stroke once ? You get one. If I 
put my hand into a basket once, and take out one apple, how 
many apples do I get ? You get one. How much is one taken 
one time ? It is one. 

Make one stroke more on the slate beside the other. What 
have I done ? You have put one stroke to one stroke, and now 
there are two strokes. Yes ; one and one are ? — Two. How 
many times have I made one stroke ? Two times. Then two 
times one are ? — Two. Pursue this exercise till one has been 
taken ten times ; in each case, as one is added, first calling out ob- 
servation on the process, as being one of addition, and then as 
being one of multiplication. 

Place two cubes of wood on the table. How many cubes are 
there here ? There are two. How many times have I now put 
two cubes on the table ? Once. How many are two taken one 
time ? Once two are two. Add two cubes to these. "What 
have I done ? You have added two cubes to the two which were 
there before. How many cubes are there on the table now ? 



NUMBER. — FIRST STEP. 167 

There are four. Yes ; two and two are ? — Four. Plow many 
times have I put two on the table ? You have done so twice. 
How many are two taken twice ? Twice two are four. Let two 
more cubes be added. "What have I done ? You have put two 
more cubes on the table. How many were there before I added 
them ? There were two and two — four. How many are there 
now ? There are two and two and two — six. How many times 
have I put two cubes on the table? Three times. Then two 
taken three times are ? — Six. Repeat : Three times two are ? 
Six. This lesson on the multiplication of two should be carried 
to " Five times two are ten." 

Let the same plan be carried out with the number three, as far 
as " Three times three are nine ;" with the number four, as far as 
" Two times four are eight ;" and with five, as far as " Two times 
five are ten." These lessons should not be carried beyond this 
point as yet, because the children are not supposed to be familiar 
with numbers more than ten, the higher numbers being gradually 
introduced. Little is gained by pressing forward quick children 
to the higher numbers ; it is far safer to proceed gradually and 
systematically. 

It will be seen, that although the range of these exercises is 
necessarily limited, they are important, as awakening perception 
of a new mode of using numbers. When the children have gone 
through them, they should recapitulate the facts, thus : 

Once two is two. Once three is three. 

Twice two are four. Twice three are six. 

Three times two are six. Three times three are nine. 

Four times two are eight. 

Five times two are ten. 

Once four is four. Once five is five. 

Twice four are eight. Twice five are ten. 

Miscellaneous practical examples should follow each exercise. 

DIVISION. ONE TO TEN. 

Object. — To lead the children to the comprehension of the 



168 NUMBER. — FIRST STEP. 

operation of dividing one number by another, and to teacli them 
to divide other numbers by one, two, three, four, &c. 
Plan. — This is illustrated in the following exercises : 

1. Make two lines on the slate, and say, Rub out two lines 
from the slate. How many times can you take away two from 
'two ? Once. How many times is two contained in two ? One 
time. 

Make four lines on the slate, and say, Rub out two lines. 
"What remain ? Two lines remain. Rub them out. What re- 
main now ? There are none left. How many lines were there 
at first ? There were four. How often can you take away two 
from four ? Twice. How often is two contained in four ? 
Twice. 

Now I make six, eight, ten lines on the slate. Try how often 
you can take away two from each of these numbers. 

Now I place three cubes on the table. How often can you 
take three cubes away from them ? Once only. But if I put 
three cubes on the table, twice over, how many will there be ? 
There will be two times three, or six cubes. How many times 
can I take three away from six ? You can take three cubes away 
twice. How often are three contained in six ? Two times. 

Now I make three, six, and nine strokes on the slate. Tell 
me how often each of these numbers contains the number three, 
and how often you can take three away from each of them. 

2. The Division by Two of Numbers under Ten. 

The teacher may construct the following table upon the school 
slate, in order to illustrate the subject. It will be seen that it in- 
cludes to some extent the exercises on multiplication, as assisting 
to the comprehension of the process of division. 

How much is twice 1 ? 2. How many ones in 2 ? 2. 

How much is twice 2 ? 4. How many twos in 4 ? 2. 

How much is twice 3 ? 6. How many twos in 6 ? 3. 

How much is twice 4 ? 8. How many twos in 8 ? 4. 

The questions should then be put in another form ; as, How 
often is two contained in two ? in four ? in six ? in eight ? How 
much is two, four, six, and eight, divided by two ? 



NUMBER. — SECOND STEP. 169 

A few miscellaneous questions might be introduced, even at 
this early stage of the subject, to make the nature of the operation 
clear. 

If I measure four yards of cloth by a yard measure, how many 
times shall 1 have to apply it to the cloth? 

If I measure four yards of cloth by a measure two yafrds long, 
how often will the length of the measure be contained in the 
length of the cloth ? 

Into how many sets of two can I divide eight marbles ? 

To how many boys can I give four pens, if I give one pen to 
each of them ? 

To how many, if I give two pens to each of them ? 

A farmer and his son are going to market ; they wish to take 
four baskets of apples with them ; how many baskets must each 
of them carry ? 

At the market they buy eight new spades ; how many must 
each of them carry ? 

SECOND STEP. 

NOTATION. 

Hitherto the several numbers have been represented to the eye 
solely by objects or strokes ; the expression of the higher numbers 
by these means will already have become inconvenient. The 
pupil must now be introduced to the more simple and practical 
method afforded by the Arabic* numerals. 

Object. — 1. To make evident the need of some brief and 
ready method of expressing the value of numbers in writing ; to 
teach the form and power ot the ten numeric signs, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
6, 7, 8, 9, 0. 

2. To make the children familiar with the meaning of, the 
words more and less,\ and with the algebraic signs -f- and — , as 

* They are, in fact, Indian in their origin, though we have received them 
through the Arabians. 

t If the children are advanced, they may be also taught that the Latin words 
plus, for more, and minus, for less, are often used, particularly in books of 
Arithmetic. 

8 



170 NUMBER. — SECOND STEP. 

respectively expressive of the operations of addition and subtrac- 
tion ; and also with the sign = as expressive of equality or result. 

Plan. — This, as it regards carrying out the first object, will be 
gathered from the following suggestions to the teacher : 

1. In order to illustrate the need for the use of figures in ex- 
pressingsto the eye the value of numbers, let the children suppose 
a case in which it is required to state some high number in writ- 
ing ; as v for instance, the age of an old man. They will at once 
see that the doing this by means of strokes would occupy so much 
time and space as to be most inconvenient, and that to avoid this 
must be most desirable. Various illustrations will suggest them- 
selves. 

"When the perception of the want has been awakened, the 
teacher may communicate the numeric value of the several nume- 
ral characters by means of groups of strokes, each group having 
written over it the figure which has been adopted as its unvarying 
symbol ; thus : 

12 3 4 

I II III I I I I 

This should be carried as far as the number nine. 

"When these groups of strokes and their representative figures 
have been thoroughly scrutinized, the children should be led on to 
apply them for themselves. The teacher may write any one of 
the figures on the slate, and require a child to place against it the 
number of strokes or units it represents, while the other children 
of the class determine whether this is correctly done. To vary 
the exercise, the teacher may make any definite number of strokes, 
not exceeding nine, upon the slate, and require the children to apply 
the right numeric sign ; or, for variety, the teacher may present a 
definite number of objects, requiring the children to express the 
number, both by the utterance of the name of the number, and by 
the formation of the corresponding figure on the slate. They 
ought to acquire familiarity with the nine numerals in two lessons.* 

* It would be a useful lesson for the children themselves to make the figures, 
indicating opposite to each of them, by the proper number of strokes, the num- 
ber of units it expresses. 



NUMBER. SECOND STEP. 171 

2. The children, having acquired the knowledge of nine figures 
by which the nine lowest numbers are briefly expressed for con- 
venience of calculation, may now be led to see that the word two 
and the sign 2, the word three and the sign 3, &c, have an un- 
changeable, or absolute value, which may be used to qualify any 
objects whatever ; so that we may say, two elephants or three 
elephants, two flies or three flies, two ones or three ones ; the 
number being always the same number, however different the 
objects to which it is applied. 

3. The teacher may now introduce the words more and less, 
and the algebraic signs of addition, subtraction, and equality or 
result. First, let the teacher write a column of numbers to be 
added, on the school slate. This may be done in different modes : 



1 and 1 are 2 

2 and 1 are 3 

3 and 1 are 4 

&c. 



1 more 1 are 2 

2 more 1 are 3 

3 more 1 are 4 

&c. 



Then let the teacher write on the slate the same numbers as be- 
fore, connecting them by the signs of addition and equality, as in 
the margin ; or the words may be erased, and the 
signs substituted. The sign -f- should not be made 1 + 1=2 
in a careless manner, and attention should be called 2 -f- 1 = 3 
to the fact that the one line is exactly vertical, the 3 + 1 = 4 
other exactly horizontal, in order that this sign 4 -f- 1 = 5 
may be the better distinguished when that which 
indicates multiplication is hereafter presented. 

The process is the same with the sign of subtraction, columns 
of some length being first constructed, with the use of words, 
afterward exhibiting the superior simplicity and utility of the 



2 less 1 is 1 

3 less 1 are 2 

4 less 1 are 3 

5 less 1 are 4 



2 — 1 = 1 

3 — 1=2 

4 — 1=3 

5 — 1=4 



172 NUMBEK. SECOND STEP. 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NUMBERS ELEVEN TO ONE HUNDRED, 
AND THE EXTENSION OF NOTATION. 

Object. — This Step is but an extension to higher numbers of 
the principles already laid down, and the extension of the power 
of numeric notation to the expression of such numbers. 

To explain the nature of the local value of figures, as distin- 
guished from their absolute value. 

Plan. — I. Develop the perception of the numbers eleven to 
one hundred, on the plan proposed in the development of the 
numbers one to nine, tangible or visible objects being still used 
with the lower numbers. The number ten should be much em- 
ployed as a means of classification, and as a help both to the eye 
and to the mind in the comprehension of the higher numbers. 

Teach the children to enumerate simply by combinations of 
tens and units before using the common contractions ; for exam- 
ple, saying after 10, one ten and one, one ten and two, &c, up to 
one ten and nine ; then two tens and one, two tens and two, &c, 
up to nine tens and nine ; thus learning the meaning of the terms 
fourteen, twenty-one, and being enabled to see more clearly the plan 
of numbering by ten, and that the highest number is merely a 
repetition of ten units. 

II. Communicate the names of each of these numbers, and 
test the children's attainments as already recommended and illus- 
trated, concluding with simple ascending and descending enu- 
meration. 

III. Illustrate the powers and names of these numbers when 
used as ordinals. 

IV. When a clear perception of such numbers has been at- 
tained, the children may be introduced to the effort of expressing 
them in numerals. To do this, they must be led to see the neces- 
sity for changing the numerals in the second, or tens' place of 
figures from 1 and 2, as hitherto used in the numbers 11, 12, and 
in 21, 22, &c. ; to 3, in 31, 32, 33, &c. ; to 4, in 41, 42, 43, &c, 
up to 99. 

This subject is important, not at this stage of instruction only, 
but throughout the whole range of number. It introduces the 
mind to the perception of a new feature in numerical notation — 



NUMBER. — SECOND STEP. 173 

that of the local value of the ten figures (inclusive of 0, which 
indicates the absence of number) ; for it is to these figures or 
sio-ns alone and not to the names of numbers, that this property 
of local value belongs. 

In the first place, lead the children to feel the need of some 
brief mode of expressing the value of numbers more than 9. 

To do this, the teacher may once more form groups of strokes 
on the slate, from one to ten, requiring a child to place over each 
stroke or group of strokes its representative numeral. This will 
be easy as far as 9. When the child has reached the group con- 
taining ten strokes, and is at a loss for a numeral by which to ex- 
press it, the teacher may communicate the fact that only nine 
numeral characters (exclusive of 0) have been invented for the 
written expression of all numbers, how large soever they may be. 

Having reached this point, the mind of the children should be 
led to think out this fact of local value. With a view to this, the 
teacher may draw two columns on the school slate, 
and write at the top of each of them the name of 
some familiar object, as in the margin ; telling the 
children to call the column on the right the first 
column,* that on the left the second. Any numeral, 
say 4, may then be written in the first column. 
What does it mean ? It means four of boys. What would it 
mean if written in the second column ? It would then mean four 
of men. Write 3 in the first column, 8 in the second. How will 
you read these figures ? Eight of men and three of boys. 
Transpose them, and how will you read them now ? Three of 
men and eight of boys. Diversify both names and numbers for 
further exercise. 

Again, draw two columns on the slate, and at the top of the 
first column, write "ones," at the top of the second, 
"tens," as in the margin. Place the numeral 1 in 
the first column. What does it mean ? It means 
one one, or one unit. Remove it to the next 
column. What does it mean now ? Now it means 
one ten. Write the same numeral in both column?. 

* This order is important as a right beginning, the " place of figures" being 
always enumerated from right to left. 



174: NUMBER. — THIRD STEP. 

"What is it now ? Now it is one ten and one one. Have you 
learnt any name for one ten and one one, or for ten more one ? 
Yes; ten more one is called "Eleven." The teacher may then 
•successively change the figure in the first column to two. What 
is it now ? One ten and two. Its name ? Twelve. To three. 
What is it now ? One ten and three. Its name ? Thirteen. 
And so on to nine. What is it now ? One ten and nine. Its 
name ? Nineteen. 

The teacher may now rub out the vertical lines, leaving 
the words " tens " and "ones" still standing as be- 
fore, with the figures under them, and may ask if tens. ones. 
the value of the figures is altered at all by remov- 
ing the lines ? Not at all. Why ? The words i q 
still remain to tell the respective value of the figures 
to be one ten and nine ones, or nine and ten, or 
nineteen. The words may now be removed also, and the teacher 
may ask if the children can themselves remember the respective 
values of the figures ? Yes ; their relative position indicates this : 
that figure in the first place of figures means nine units, or ones ; 
that in the second place of figures means one ten, the whole sum 
being one ten and nine ones, or nineteen. 

The children may now be told that whenever two figures stand 
side by side thus, that they always bear this relation to each other, 
and they may be led to see that the value of a figure is increased 
tenfold by being moved one place to the left. 

The children should now be exercised in reading and putting 
down numbers to ninety-nine. 



THIRD STEP. 

Exercises with Numbers, the Sum or Product of which does not 
exceed 100. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Since the decimal system in its principal features, together 
with its notation, has to some extent been presented to the chil- 



NUMBER. THIRD STEP. 175 

dren in the preceding chapters, it becomes the duty of the teacher 
to show the children its advantages, even in mental arithmetic, 
and not to leave it entirely to chance, or to an appeal to memory 
alone ; remembering that in every school a large proportion of the 
children do not belong to that privileged class who seize every- 
thing by the force of native talent, or of genius. The teacher 
may make use of the hints given in these introductory remarks 
whenever the opportunity, or rather the necessity, presents itself. 
For instance, if there should be some difficulty in the addition of 
26 + 3, 56 + 3, &c, the teacher has but to ask what 6 + 3 
would make, showing that the above questions are related, or 
rather based upon this fact, and that, whilst the sum of the units 
is 9 in every one of these examples, the number of tens remains 
unchanged. 

The same advantage is taken, when the subtraction of such 
examples as 37 — 4, 57 — 4, 97 — 4, &c, is to be performed, 
since they are all based upon the fact that 7 — 4 leaves 3, and 
that the number of tens is not affected. 

In such examples as 57 + 5, 67 + 5, 87 + 5, the number of 
tens becomes affected — that is, increased by one ten ; but as the 
sum of the units 7 + 5 make 12, it is easy to perceive that the 
number of units in the answer to any of the above questions must 
be 2, whilst the number of tens becomes increased by one. 

A little more thought is required in solving such questions as 
72 — 5, &c, where the number of units to be subtracted exceeds 
the number of units in the number from which they are to be 
taken. In such a case, the teacher would do well to ask, into 
what parts they could divide 5 ? Answer, 1+4, 2 + 3. Ask 
them further, whether to take 1 + 4, or 2 + 3 away, would be 
the same as taking away 5 ? Then let them take off 2, leaving 
70, and then 3 from 70, leaving 67 for the answer. Ask, then, 
whether it would not have been as convenient to have taken first 
one away, and then 4 afterward. Why not ? What arrange- 
ment would they make in taking away 7 from 54 ? What would 
be the most convenient division of 7 in this example ? 

Another advantage presented by the decimal system, and 
often used for the rapid solution of questions, is found in the addi- 



176 NUMBER. THIRD STEP. 

tion and subtraction of numbers near ten , as, for instance, of 8 
and 9. To see this fully, the teacher may ask them to add 10 to 
any number she gives, which is the operation of a moment. She 
may then ask how much less 9 is than 10 ? If they would add 10 
to any number, instead of 9, whether the result would not be too 
great ? By how much ? "What must be done, to conform to the 
question ? 

Similar questions may be asked in regard to the subtraction 
of 9 or 8, and it will be found that the common sense of the chil- 
dren will never be slow to seize this legitimate advantage, which 
the more talented children will have found out for themselves. 
An intelligent teacher, who acts in this spirit, need not be afraid 
of having many slow or stupid children in the class. 

Addition and Subtraction of a Number not exceeding 10 succes- 
sively. 

"We consider it of the utmost importance, that pupils should 
not merely receive a few isolated questions of an exercise, but 
should be led to answer questions arranged in a series where no 
link has been omitted. There is, however, a danger, that many 
teachers may commit mistakes in the presentation of such a series, 
which will render it useless. For instance, let us suppose that a 
class is required to answer the following questions : — What does 
1 + 2 make ? 2 + 2? 3 + 2? 4 + 2? 5 + 2? 6 + 2? The 
respective answers- to these questions are, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, &c. 
Now it is evident that every child, in giving his answers, has but 
to add one to the answer given by his predecessor, which can be 
done without thought, mechanically ; since, as far as the work is 
concerned, it. requires but the addition of one. To avoid this mis- 
take, the questions given below have been arranged upon a differ- 
ent plan. 

First Series of Addition. — Add 2 to 1, and to the successive 
results. The teacher asks : 1 + 2, how many ? 3 + 2? 5 + 2? 
7 + 2? 9 + 2? 11+2? 13 + 2? 15 + 2? 17 + 2? 

To what extent these exercises are to be carried, depends on 
the discretion of the teacher, and on the number of the scholars, 



NUMBEK. THIRD STEP. 177 

since every one of them should take a part in the formation of a 
series. As a general thing, it is sufficient to add the number 
about nine times. 

First Series of Subtraction. — Subtract 2 from 19, and from 
successive remainders. 19 — 2? 17 — 2? 15 — 2? 13 — 2? 
11_2? 9 — 2? 7 — 2? 5 — 2? 3 — 2? 

Remark. — After constructing a series, the teacher must not 
forget to ask questions promiscuously. 

Second Series of Addition. — Add 2 to 2, and to successive 
results. 2 + 2? 4 + 2? 6+2? 8 + 2? 10 + 2? 12 + 2? 
14 + 2? 16 + 2? 18 + 2? 

Second Series of Subtraction. — Subtract 2 from 20, and from 
successive remainders. 20 — 2? 18 — 2? 16 — 2? 14 — 2? 
12 — 2? 10 — 2? 8 — 2? 6 — 2? 4 — 2? 2 — 2? 

In order to allow the teacher to superintend and conduct sev- 
eral classes at the same time, she may call upon those who have 
gone through one or more of the preceding exercises, to commit 
them to writing on their slates, giving them the signs of + for 
addition, — for subtraction, = for equality. 

The work, as seen on their slates, would then stand thus : 



1 + 2 = 3 


19 — 2 = 17 


2 + 2=4 


20 — 2 = 18 


3 + 2 = 5 


17 — 2 = 15 


4 + 2 = 6 


18 — 2 = 16 


5 + 2 = 7 


15 — 2 = 13 


6 + 2= 8 


16 — 2 = 14 


7 + 2 = 9 


13 — 2 = 11 


8 + 2 = 10 


14 — 2 = 12 


9 + 2 = 11 


11 — 2= 9 


10 + 2 = 12 


12 — 2 = 10 


&c. 


&c. 


&c. 


&c. 



It is of little consequence whether the series of addition are 
presented in close succession, or alternate with subtraction. We 
follow the former method in presenting the series, which can be 
made in the addition and subtraction of 3. 

First Series. — Addition of 3 to 1, and its successive results. 
1 + 3? 4 + 3? 7 + 3? 10 + 3? 13 + 3? &c, to 25 + 3? 

Second Series.— Addition of 3 to 2, &c. 2 + 3 ? 5 + 3 ? 

8 + 3? 11+3? 14 + 3? 17 + 3? &c, to 26 + 3? 

Third Series.— Addition of 3 to 3, &c. 3 + 3 ? 6 + 3 ? 

9 + 3? 12 + 3? 15 + 3? 18 + 3? &c, to 27 + 3? 



178 NUMBER. — THIKD STEP. 

SUBTRACTION. 

First Series. — Subtraction of 3 from 28, and from successive 
remainders. 28 — 3? 25 — 3? 22 — 3? 19 — 3? &c. 

Second Series. — Subtraction of 3 from 29, &c. 29 — 3? 

26 — 3? 23 — 3? 20 — 3? &c. 

Third Series. — Subtraction of 3 from 30, &c. 30 — 3? 

27 — 3? 24 — 3? 21 — 3? 18 — 3? &c. 

MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 

28 + 3? 17 + 3? 22 + 3? 
31 — 3? 16 — 3? 25 — 3? 
16 + 2 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 3? 
31 — 3 — 2 — 1 — 2? 

15 + 2 — 3 + 1 — 2 + 3? 

The above merely indicate the kind of questions that should 
be put to the children after having gone through with the several 
series. Many similar examples should be given by the teacher. 

The addition and subtraction of 4 presents 4 series for each : 

First Series.— 1 +4? 5+4? 9 + 4? &c, to 33 + 4 ? 

Second " 2 + 4? 6 + 4? 10 + 4? «• 34 + 4? 

Third " 3 + 4? 7 + 4? 11+4? " 35 + 4? 

Fourth " 4 + 4? 8 + 4? 12 + 4? " 36 + 4? 

SUBTRACTION. 

First Series.— 37 — 4 ? 33 — 4? 29 — 4? &c. 

Second " 38 — 4? 34 — 4? 30 — 4? " 

Third " 39 — 4? 35 — 4? 31—4? « 

Fourth " 40 — 4? 36 — 4? 32 — 4? " 

Similar tables should be made out with 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. If 
the teacher does not deem it necessary to include all the series in 
each table, the first and last may be taken, and the intermediate 
series omitted ; as, 

First Series.— I -\- 5 ? 6 + 5? 11 + 5? 16 + 5 ? &c, up to 
41 + 5? 



NUMBER. THIRD STEP. 179 

Fifth Series.— 5 + 5 ? 10 + 5? 15 + 5? 20 + 5? &c, up to 
ten additions. 

The Second, Third, and Fourth Series being omitted. If there is 
sufficient time, however, it is better to include all. It is quite im- 
portant that the last series with each number, in which the num- 
ber itself is repeated, should always be included, as this has an 
important bearing on multiplication. 

MULTIPLICATION. 

There are people who do not consider either Multiplication or 
Division as a distinct operation, or as one involving a new prin- 
ciple, since, philosophically considered, these two operations of 
arithmetic can but do one of two things — either increase or dimin- 
ish — which was done equally by the two processes already de- 
scribed. Moreover, multiplication, as everybody knows, is un- 
doubtedly the result of the addition of equal numbers. "When 
these results have been committed to memory, so that they can be 
immediately reproduced, we give to this act the name of mul- 
tiplication. All being agreed that the instantaneous production 
of the facts of multiplication are of the utmost importance, in the 
arithmetical transactions of practical life, the question remains 
whether they have simply to be committed to memory, without 
thought or reflection, or whether they ought to be found or pro- 
duced by the efforts of the pupils themselves. The first view led 
to the mechanical learning by rote of the so-called table of multi- 
plication ; the second view arose from the conviction, that it is 
unworthy of the most logical of all sciences, to give distinct and 
easily ascertained truths merely as a matter of belief, for parrot-like 
repetition, and that memory itself has no stronger ally than the 
full conception and understanding of a fact. The plan of the fol- 
lowing exercises, as will be seen, advocates the latter of these 
views. 

In the original treatise, which contains Pestalozzi's plan of teach- 
ing arithmetic, was seen the so-called table of " units," consisting 
of groups of strokes, intended, by their combination and repe- 
tition, to establish the facts of multiplication. Since, however, 



180 NUMBER. — THIRD STEP. 

the counting by units (for which the lines are designed) is alto- 
gether discarded at the step at which the pupils are supposed to 
be, it is proposed to use a less cumbersome method of illustration, 
by making use. of the figures representing numbers, and by arrang- 
ing them thus : 

Table of Addition to Illustrate Multiplication. 

1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1 
2 + 2»+ 2 b + 2°+ 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 
3+3+3+3+3+3+3+3+3+3 
4+4+4+4+4+4+4+4+4+4 
5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 
6+6+6+6+6+6+6+6+6+6 
7+7+7+7+7+7+7+7+7+7 
8+8+8+8+8+8+8+8+8+8 
9+9+9+9+9+9+9+9+9+9 

Remark. — Each number, as will be seen, is represented 10 
times. The table of ones is the first, although it reproduces but 
the results of counting ; as, 1 time 1 = 1 ; 2 times 1 = 2. The 
table of tens is omitted, since it is supposed to have been already 
treated in establishing the laws of numeration and notation up to 
100. The tables of 11 and 12 are here omitted, as involving 
compound numbers, although they may be profitably learnt by 
rote on some other occasion. 

First Exercise. — Multiplication of Twos. — The first opera- 
tion to be performed on this table is obviously this, to have the 
sums produced by the addition of twos, threes, fours, &c, distinctly' 
expressed. The power to do this has already been established in 
the previous exercises ; for instance, the teacher asking, How 
many are 2 + 2 ? 2 + 2+2 ? 2 + 2 + 2 + 2? &c, will un- 
doubtedly obtain the correct answer. It becomes necessary, how- 
ever, at this step, to obtain the answers quickly, without delay or 
hesitation. For this purpose, the teacher may point to the right 
of a number (for instance to a), and ask, What is the sum of units 
to the left of my pointer ? Ans. 4. And now? (pointing to b.) 
Ans. 6. And now? (at c.) Ans. 8. She then moves the 



NUMBER. THIRD STEP. 181 

pointer to the numbers farther to the right, always requiring the 
children to tell the number of units. 

This is done forward and backward (in which case it becomes 
subtraction), with always increasing rapidity, till the children, or 
at least the greater part of them, give their answers almost in- 
stantaneously. When this is accomplished, the teacher may go 
back to the first method of questioning, and ask, without point- 
ing to the table, Can you tell me once more how many units 
2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 make ? .Am. 10. Then say, " Two and 
two and two and two and two are ten." Is there not a shorter 
way to express this same fact ? How many twos did I give ? 
Five twos. And how many units do they contain ? Ten. Then 
say, " Five twos are ten units, or five times two are ten." 

The teacher then tells them, that the taking of a number a 
certain number of times, and expressing the result in units, is 
called multiplication ; and the act of doing it, to multiply. She 
then requires a child to take two 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ten times, 
in the way already indicated : " One time two is two ; two times 
two are four," &c. She then asks others, and finally bids the class 
repeat it in concert. She then tells them to write the facts they 
have just expressed, which can be done thus : 

6 times 2 = 12 

7 " 2 = 14 

8 " 2 = 16 

9 " 2 = 18 
10 " 2 = 20 

Or, by giving them the sign of multiplication, together with its 
meaning, the same facts would be rendered thus : 



1 times 2 


— 


2 


2 


tt 


2 


= 


4 


3 


k 


2 


= 


6 


4 


n 


2 


= 


8 


5 


u 


2 


— 


10 



2X1=2 
2X2 = 4 
2X3 = 6 



2X4=8 
2 X 5= 10 
2 X 6 = 12, &c. 



Note to the Teacher. — It is generally the custom to read 
this table in a reversed order, and to call the above facts, 2 times 
2 = 4; 2 times 3 = 6; 2 times 4 = 8; but this cannot be de- 
fended on any philosophical principle. In the first place, it is not 



182 NUMBER. THIKD STEP. 

what the children have learned ; for in practising, for instance, 
the table of twos, they have not learned that twice three are six, 
but that three times two are six. ■ Secondly, it gives a wrong view 
about the meaning of the sign of multiplication, X, which cannot 
be translated by the word "times," but signifies "multiplied by." 
The expression 2X3 means, therefore, 2 multiplied by 3 ; or, in 
other words, 2 taken 3 times, which is equivalent to 3 times 2. 

Those who wish to test the accuracy of the children's concep- 
tion, in any school where arithmetic is taught on sound principles, 
have but to ask whether they think 3 times 4 and 4 times 3 are 
exactly alike, and to illustrate each fact by means of lines or 
objects. They will probably be told, that whilst the product or 
result in both questions is the same, the arrangement or grouping 
of the objects is different. 

After the children have written the table of twos, they should 
proceed in the same way with the tables of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 
commit them to memory. 

MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS ON MULTIPLICATION. 

7X5? 4X8? 9X7? 7x7? 
3X2 + 7 + 9? 7X4 + 5 + 8 + 3? 
9X9 — 4 — 8 — 3? 7x8 — 5 — 3 — 9? 
8X 6 + 4 + 7 — 8 — 3 + 6? 

7X2 + 3X2? 4X3 + 5X3? 7X4 + 2X4 + 8 
+ 6 — 7 ? &c. 

The teacher should give many more examples of this character. 

DIVISION. 

Introduction. — It has already been hinted, that Division is 
an operation which implies Subtraction. This can be shown in 
the following manner : Let us take the example, 12 -h 3, which 
asks how many times 3 is contained in 12? Now if we ascer- 
" tain how many times 3 can be subtracted from 12, the question is 
solved. But 12 — 3 — 3 — 3 — 3 = 0. Thus we see, that 3 
could be subtracted 4 times from 12 ; consequently 3 is four times 
contained in 12, or 12 -^ 3 = 4. 



NUMBER. THIRD STEP. 183 

It is obvious, however, that at the present step it is easier and 
shorter to consider Division the inverse operation of Multiplication, 
or as one which analyzes the result of multiplication into its fac- 
tors. Thus, since 3, four times taken, makes 12, it is evident 
that 3 is, for this reason, contained in 12 four times. 

Division of a Number by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, provided the Num- 
ber does not exceed Ten Times its Divisor. 

Division by 2. — Who can tell how many times 2 is contained 
in 12? Ans. Six times. Why? Because 6 times 2 = 12. 
This answer, as well as the argument, may be expected to be 
given at once by many of the class. In order, however, to bring 
the matter within the comprehension of even the dullest scholar, the 
teacher may draw 12 strokes on the blackboard, | | MIL 

and bid a child to show how it might be proved that 2 (or a 
group of two strokes) is contained six times in 12. 

The practical analysis of this question is found in the adjoined 
diagram : 

12 3 4 5 6 

nniinnn 

She may also ask, how the same fact can be shown on the multi- 
plication table, on the series representing twos : 



2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2 

13 3 4 5 6 

The child has first to point out the sum of 12 units (at the right 
end of the arc), and then count the number of twos situated under 
the whole arc. One or two examples of this kind will probably 
establish the facts of division, in so far as they are related to the 
table of multiplication. 

The further questions must, of course, be put in a systematic 
and progressive manner, taking care that all the units below 10 
are brought into play as divisors of a given number. 

The second and third series of additions in the preceding table, 
for illustrating multiplication, contain the answers to the follow- 
ing questions : 



184 NUMBER. THIRD STEP. 

* 

How many times is 2 contained in 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 
18,20? Why? 

How many times is 3 contained in 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21 24 
27, 30 ? Why ? &c, &c, &c. 

If the teacher finds it necessary to make the children write 
out the table of division, she may give them the sign of division, 
-4-, and tell them that 12 -4- 4 is generally expressed as 12 divided 
by 4. 

• MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 

18-4-2? 27 -=-3? 16 -T- 4? &c. 

To 21 -=-3 add 7 + 9 + 4? To 56 -4- 7 add 4 + 2 + 5? 

To 64 -4- 8 add 3 + 5 — 9 — 7 ? 

(27 -4-3)9? &c. This must be read, 27-4-3 multiplied by 9. 

To (18 -4- 9) 2 add 7 + 9 — 4 — 8? &c. 

Division of Numbers leaving a Remainder. 

How many times is 2 contained in 15 ? Ans. 7 times and 1 
over. Why? Show it by lines. Pi fl fl fl fl fl fl I- The 
teacher now may tell the scholars, that in future examples of this 
kind they would do well to arrange the given number into two 
unequal parts, the first or larger one containing a number a cer- 
tain number of times, and the latter forming a remainder. 

In this operation she appeals to the memory of the children in 
regard to the products of the table of multiplication. For in- 
stance, in the question 29-4-3, she may ask whether they think 
that 3 is contained in 29 a certain number of times without a re- 
mainder? Whether this is the case with 28? With 27 ? Yes; 
3 is contained in 27, 9 times. Then how many units are over, to 
make up 29 ? Tjjvo units. Express now the whole question : 
29 -=- 3 = 7 and 2 remaining. 

All the following examples, which the teacher may give pro- 
miscuously, are to be solved in a similar manner ; for instance, 
39-4-5? 

Solution : 39 -4- 5 = 7, with a remainder of 4. 



NUMBER. THIRD STEP. 185 

Some Suggestions on the Application of the foregoing Exercises to 
so-called Concrete* Numhers. 

The purpose of these lessons being principally to develop a 
clear insight of numbers, their relations and properties, and the 
operations performed with them, the subject of their application does 
not seem to belong within the compass of this book ; and the less 
so, as the examples to which we refer may be found in every 
treatise on Arithmetic. On the other hand, it may not be inap- 
propriate, in connection with the principles advocated here, to 
render the teacher, to some extent, even independent of the ex- 
amples supplied by a book. 

In regard to one kind of examples which suggest the addi- 
tion, subtraction, &c, of given objects, some of them of com- 
mercial interest, such as cents, dollars, pounds, &c, it need not be 
stated how easily these can be supplied at every step ; nor should 
they be neglected, since they form an absorbing subject of consid- 
eration to every clerk, accountant, shopkeeper, and to other per- 
sons. As mental exercises, they must, however, be limited to num- 
bers that can be easily remembered. 

There is, however, one set of questions in which the terms 
usually adopted in the operations with abstract numbers, such as 
" adding," " subtracting," " multiplying," &c, are discarded, and 
other verbs supplied which imply the above named operations. 
For instance, there is addition implied in the actions to receive, to 
find, to earn, to borrow, to gain, to collect, &c. On the contrary, 
the idea of " getting less," or of subtraction, suggests itself to the 
mind by the actions of "leaving," "losing," "throwing away," 
" dying," &c. In the transactions of buying, we have an increase 
of articles, and a diminution of money ; whilst in those of selling 
the case is reversed. 

Now it would seem no difficult task to any thinking teacher 
to do what she is supposed to do in the preparation of all her other 
lessons, namely, to prepare for herself some examples of a con- 
crete and practical character ; as, for instance, " I had 28 cents ; 

* We protest against the word " concrete," as applied to numbers. Objects 
must be concrete, but numbers are always abstract. 



186 NUMBER. — FOURTH STEP. 

of these I spent 6, and lost 2. On the other hand, I earned 12 
cents one day, 18 cents the other ; how many cents have I now ? " 

In regard to multiplication, the teacher's examples must be 
applied to objects which present some uniform repetition. For in- 
stance, in the example, " 7 square tables have how many legs 1 " we 
find a repetition of 4 legs in each, and therefore 7 times 4 legs in 
all. The same is the case with the question, What is the price 
of 7 articles, at 4 cents each ? 

In regard to division, the first practical view which suggests 
itself is that of dividing a certain number of objects among some 
persons, or arranging them within some spaces ; as, for instance : 
If I divide 20 apples among 4 persons, how many will each 
receive ? If 28 chairs are equally distributed in seven rooms, how 
many are there in each room ? 

In these examples it would be simply absurd to say, Divide 20 
apples by 4 persons, or 28 chairs by 8 rooms. This is another 
proof that the operations of arithmetic are performed mainly with 
abstract numbers, since the substitution of pears, cherries, marbles, 
and other objects, would not have affected the numerical operation. 

There are a great many practical examples where division is 
not suggested by name, but simply by the circumstances attending 
the transaction. For instance, "I bought 5 articles with 35 cents j 
how much did I give for each ? " 



FOURTH STEP. 

Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division, extended to 
Higher Numbers. Also a Short Course in Fractions. 

This Step, which is thoroughly connected with the preceding 
one, is often neglected in common arithmetical works, and its solu- 
tions merely left to chance. Although at this step the visible 
illustrations may be to a great extent discarded, yet it becomes the 
more necessary to appeal to those sound principles which oblige 
the pupil to give to number a real value, and not, as is sometimes 
the case in cyphering, a mere nominal one. 

Where cyphering begins too early, the child will often operate 



NUMBER. FOURTH STEP. 187 

in a mechanical manner, even "when he is required to perform a 
mental example. In order to illustrate this, we will assume that 
25 and 47 have to be added. A child taught by rules will proba- 
bly imagine the 47 placed under the 25 ; then adding 7 and 5 
together, he will probably put two and carry one, which he adds 
to the sum of the two figures to the left, 4 and 2. The sum he 
will thus obtain he calls 72. Now it need not be said that this 
method is very cumbersome for mental arithmetic, and becomes 
nearly impracticable when applied to an example of subtraction. 
On the other hand, a child taught by natural principles will mark 
out a true path for himself, after having started in the right direc- 
tion. We state here some of the most obvious features of this 
Step: 

1. In performing operations of mental arithmetic with numbers 
composed of tens and units, it is safer to consider first the tens, 
and then the units. 

2. The tens have to be treated as if they were units, as far as 
the operations are concerned. 

3. The exercises have to be so arranged, that each one ex- 
plains the following. 

4. The solutions must not be given to the children, but drawn 
out by cpiestions. 

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION. 

Exercise I. — Addition of Tens to Tens, and Subtraction of Tens 
from Tens. 

Example in Addition : How many are 20 -)- 20 ? How 
many are 2 and 2 ? How many tens do 2 tens and 2 tens make ? 
How many units ? 

The solution then stands as follows : 2 and 2 are 4 ; 2 tens 
and 2 tens are 4 tens, or 40 ; therefore 20 -(- 20 = 40. 

Examine in Subtraction: How many are 50 — 20? How 
many are 5 — 2 ? 5 tens less 2 tens are how many tens ? How 
many units ? 

Solution : 5 — 2 = 3; 5 tens less 2 tens leave 3 tens, or 30 ; 
therefore 50— 20 = 30. 



188 NUMBER. FOURTH STEP. 

A great many questions of this kind must be given, and their 
solutions required. 

Exekcise II. — Addition of Tens and Units to Tens, and Subtrac- 
tion of Tens from Tens and Units, or of Tens and Units from 
Tens. 

Example in Addition : How many are 35 + 20 ? How 
many are 30 -j- 20 ? And 5 more ? 

Solution : 30 + 20 = 50 ; 50 + 5 = 55. 

Example in Subtraction : How many are 59 — 20 ? What is 
50 — 20? 59 — 20? Why do you add 9 to the former result ? 
Are the units changed in this example ? Are the tens ? 

Remark. — The child will see at once that the diminution only 
takes place in the tens, and that the units are left unchanged. 
The children will now be able to solve similar examples, which 
should be abundantly supplied by the teacher. 

Example in Subtraction: How many are 50 — 37? How 
many are 50 — 30? 20 — 7? 

Solution : 50 — 30 = 20; 20 — 7 = 13. 

Exercise III. — Addition of Tens and Units to Tens and Units, 
and Subtraction of Tens and Units from Tens and Units. 

Example in Addition : How many are 43 -f- 29 ? 43 -f- 20 ? 
63 + 9? 

Solution : 43 + 20 = 63 ; 63 + 9 = 72. 
. Eemark. — If some of the children should make the solution 
thus : 40 + 20 = 60 ; 9 + 3 = 12; therefore 60 + 12 = 72, it 
should be accepted, although the former method will be more ex- 
peditious. 

Example in Subtraction : How many are 73 — 28? 73 — 20? 
53 — 8? 

Solution : 73 — 20 = 53 ; 53 — 8 = 45. 

The teacher must use her own judgment as to the number of 
examples that should be given under each exercise. Before pro- 



NUMBER. — FOURTH STEP. 189 

ceeding to the next exercise, the children should be able readily 
to solve any examples given them. 

MULTIPLICATION. 

The exercises in this step comprise examples in which one of 
the factors may go as high as 100, whilst the other must at pres- 
ent be limited to numbers not exceeding 10. 

Exercise I. — Multiplication of Tens by Units. 

Remark. — This exercise will prove extremely easy, but not 
the less important. Since, however, the results obtained will soon 
exceed 100, and will, reach as high as 1,000, it will be necessary 
for the teacher to extend the pupil's knowledge of notation and 
numeration, so as to enable him to write down correctly all the 
numbers from 100 to 1,000. This she can do on the plan sug- 
gested in a previous Step, under the head of " Notation." 

In order to do full justice to this fundamental exercise, the 
children should compose several series by multiplying 10 succes- 
sively by all units ; after this 20, next 30, next 40, &c, up to 
100. 

The questions composing these series should first be given 
orally, and analyzed, after which they may be written on their 
slates. 

The series will stand thus, when written : 



10 X I = 10 


20 X 1 = 20 


30 X 1 = 30 


10 X 2 = 20 


20 X 2 = 40 


30 X 2 = 60 


10 X 3 = 30 


20 X 3 •= 60 


30 X 3 = 90 


10 X 4 = 40 


20 X 4 = 80 


30 X 4 = 120 


&c, to 


&c, to 


&c, to 


10X10 = 100 


20 X 10 = 200 


30 X 10 = 300 



This table should be read, "One time ten, two times ten," &c, 
and not " Ten times one," &c. 

Remark. — The first of these series needs no comment, since 
it was discussed in a previous Step, on Notation. In order to 
prove, in the second series, that 2 times 20 = 40, the teacher 



190 NUMBER. FOURTH STEP. 

may ask, Of how many tens is 20 composed ? 2 times 2 are how 
many units ? 2 times 2 tens are how many tens ? How many 
units ? 

The succeeding examples may be treated in the same way, till 
the children readily see the analogy between the multiplication of 
tens and that of units. 

Many miscellaneous questions should be given, and their solu- 
tions required ; as, for instance, 5 times 80 ? 

Solution : 5 times 8 = 40 ; 5 times 8 tens = 40 tens = 400. 

Exercise II. — Tens and Units Multiplied by Units. 

Example : 53X4? The teacher must first show that this 
question requires that 4 times 50 and 4 times 3 should be added 
together. 

Solution : 4 times 50 = 200 ; 4 times 3 = 12; 200 -f 12 = 
212. 

Example : 97X9? 

Solution : 9 times 90 = 810 ; 9 times 7 = 63 ; 810 -f 63 = 
873. 

Let many questions be added, until the children can readily 
solve any question given. 

DIVISION. 

Exercise. — Division of Numbers not falling below Ten Times, 
and not exceeding Twenty Times their Divisor, which must not 
exceed 10. 

Example: 37 -=- 2 ? 

As examples of this kind are in their analysis somewhat differ- 
ent from those in multiplication, they require a fuller development. 

The teacher may ask first, into what parts they would divide 
the given number, before operating upon it ? The probable an- 
swer would be, Into 30 and 7. The teacher then must proceed to 
show, that however convenient such an arrangement would have 
been for any of the preceding operations, it might not prove to be 
so in this case. Let us take another example : How many times 



NUMBER. FOURTH STEP. 191 

is 2 contained in 30 ? If the children hesitate in their answer, 
the teacher proceeds: How many times is 2 contained in 20? 
10 times. By how many more is 37 than 20 ? Seventeen. Then 
we may arrange 37 into 20 and 17. How many times is 2 con- 
tained in 20? Ten times. And in 17 ? Eight times and 1 over. 
How many times in 20 -f 17, or in 37 ? 10 + 8 times and 1 
over, or 18 times and 1 over. 

Example : 49 -f- 3. Into what parts would you separate 49 
to be divided by 3 ? Into 30 and 19. Why would you do so ? 
Because we know that 3 is contained in 30 10 times. And in 
19? 6 times and 1 over. Therefore it is contained in 49 how 
many times? 16 times and 1 over. 

The children are thus led to separate all the numbers which 
they are required to divide in this Step, into two numbers, one of 
which is equal to ten times its divisor, and the other the difference 
between this and the given number. Both these numbers are then 
divided, and their quotients added together. 

The teacher should not, however, be satisfied with giving a 
few isolated examples, but should occupy the class during several 
lessons by examples arranged like those below, the children giv- 
ing a solution for each example : 
27 -=-2? 37 -h 2? &c. 
33 -=-3? 42 -4- 3? 56 -h 3? &c. 
46 ~ 4? 53-4-4? 61-4-4? 73 -4- 4 ? &c. 

And so on, using 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 as divisors of any number 
which does not give a quotient greater than twenty. 

The teacher should continue similar examples, until the chil- 
dren can readily solve any question conforming to the conditions 
laid down. 

The preceding questions, and their solutions, will prepare the 
children to solve on their slates questions written on the black- 
board by the teacher, not by a mechanical process, but by a true 
analysis of the numbers which compose them. The following 
example will suggest the manner in which it may be written by 
the children : 

Example: 167-4-9? 



192 NUMBER. FOURTH STEP. 

Solution: 90 -^- 9 = 10 

11 -r- 9 = 8 and 5 over. 



167 -~- 9 = 18 and 5 over. 



FRACTIONS. 



Summary of the Exercises. 

I. — Exercises on the names and values of Fractions. 
II. — To convert whole numbers into Fractions. 
III. — To convert Fractions into whole numbers. 
IV. — Conversion of Fractions from one denomination to an- 
other. 
V. — Addition of Fractional numbers. 

VI. — To find how much must be added to a Fractional num- 
ber, in order to produce a given number. 
VII. — Various applications. 

I. — On the Names and Values of Fractions. 

Divide this apple into two equal pieces or parts. "What is one 
of these parts called ? "What the other ? And the two parts 
taken together? What, then, is a half? 

A half is one of two equal parts of a whole. 

How many half apples are there in one apple ? 

Then one whole apple is the same as . 

How did I obtain the half of this apple ? 

By dividing it into 2 equal parts, and taking one of these 
parts. 

If, instead of 2 parts, I divide the apple into 3, what should I 
have ? 3 equal parts. Say 3 thirds. And each of these parts ? 
1 third. 

What, then, is the third part of a thing ? 

The two thirds ? 

To make one apple, how many thirds of an apple are neces- 
sary ? Then one whole apple is the same as . 

How did I obtain the third of the apple ? How two thirds ? 



NUMBER. FOURTH STEP. 193 

The idea of the fourth may be developed as the half and third, 
or as follows : — 

If, after having divided an apple into halves, I divide each 
half into two other equal parts, how many parts shall I have ? 

Ans. 4. 

Each part is called a quarter, or a fourth. 

To make one apple, how many quarters or fourths of an apple 
are required ? 

Observation. — It is necessary to familiarize the child with 
these words, half third, fourth, and to endeavor to give him a 
precise idea of them, by making him take a certain part of some 
whole ; for example, of a roll of paper, of a piece of wood, &c. 
The different kinds of unity should be varied as much as possible, 
in order that the pupil may not regard fractions absolutely, but 
merely as they relate to the unity employed. 

Having taken 3 different objects as units, divide one of them 
into 2 equal parts, another into 3, and the third into 4 ; form them 
into 3 groups, and desire the child to point out a half, a third, two 
thirds, a quarter, two quarters, three quarters. These objects may 
be apples, small wands, or cubes. Let him also compare these 
different fractions with reference to size, by asking him which is 
the larger, 'a half or a third ? a third or a quarter ? two thirds or 
three quarters ? &c. The object here is not to teach him to find 
the difference with great exactness ; it is sufficientfor him to know 
that a half is more than a third, a third more than a quarter ; for 
the greater number of parts there are in a unit, the smaller they 
are ; that three quarters are more than two thirds, &c, &c. 



II. — Conversion of "Whole Numbers into Fractions. 

How many half apples are there in 2 apples ? 
The same question upon 3, 4, 5, 6 apples, &c. 
How many half feet are there in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 feet ? 
How many thirds are there in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 apples ? 
How many thirds are contained in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 yards ? 
The same questions may be asked respecting quarters. 
9 



194 NUMBEK. FOUKTH STEP. 

How many parts would there be, if each, half were divided 
into 3? 

Ask the same question, if they were divided into 4, 5 parts. 

How many parts would there be, if each third were divided 
into 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 equal parts ? 

Ask the same questions, if each quarter be divided. 

Observation. — The pupils should perform these operations 
themselves, either upon apples or some other objects. As a great 
quantity of apples would be necessary for such operations as these, 
cards may be used, divided into as many parts as are requisite ; 
but it is better not to cut them entirely through, in order that the 
child may preserve the idea of unity formed by the reunion of the 
several parts. Lines may now be used ; they are more conve- 
nient than objects. 

Repeat all together. 

1 whole is equal to 2 halves. 

2 wholes make 4 " 

3 " 6 " 

4 " 8 " 

5 " 10 " &c, &c. 

1 whole is equal to 3 thirds. 

2 wholes make 6 " 

3 9 " 

4 " 12 " 

5 " 15 " &c, &c. 

1 whole is equal to 4 quarters. 

2 wholes make 8 " 

3 " 12 " 

4 " 16 " 

5 " 20 " &c, &c. 
1 whole is equal to 5 fifths. 



&c, &c. 



2 wholes make 


10 


3 


15 


4 " 


20 


5 


25 


6 


30 



NUMBEK. FOURTH STEP. 



195 



III. — Conversion of Fractions into Whole Numbers. 

How many apples are there in 3 half apples ? 

Ans. 1 apple and a half. 

Let the same question be asked respecting 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 
halves, &c. 

The children will easily perceive that they must find how 
many times 2 halves are contained in the number of halves of 
which the wholes are to be formed. This may be done first by 
allowing them to put two halves together to make a whole, then 
two more, and so on, until all have been counted. But they must 
not be told. 

They should also be required to find how many wholes there 
are in a certain number of thirds, of fourths, and of fifths. 



Simultaneous repetition. 



Halves. 






Halves. 


2 make 1 whole. 


1 whole is equal to 2 


3 ' 


' 1 " and a half. 


1 


" and a half make 3 


4 < 


' 2 wholes. 


2 wholes make 4 


5 ' 


' 2 " and a half. 


2 


" and a half make 5 


6 ' 


' 3 wholes. 


3 


" make 6 


7 ' 


' 3 " and a half. 


3 


" and a half make 7 


8 ' 


1 4 wholes. 


4 


" make 8 


9 ' 


' 4 " and a half. 


4 


" and a half make 9 


10 < 


' 5 wholes. 


5 


" make 10 


Thirds. 






Thirds. 


3 ms 


ike 1 whole. 


1 whole is equal to 3 


4 < 


' 1 " and 1 third. 


1 


" and 1 third make 4 


5 ' 


' 1 " and 2 thirds. 


1 


" and 2 thirds make 5 


6 ' 


' 2 wholes. 


2 wholes make 6 


7 ' 


< 2 " and 1 third. 


2 


" and 1 third make 7 


8 < 


' 2 " and 2 thirds. 


2 


" and 2 thirds make 8 


9 ' 


' 3 wholes. 


3 


" make 9 


10 < 


' 3 " and 1 third. 


3 


" and 1 third make 10 



196 



NUMBER. FOURTH STEP. 



Quarters. 




Quarters. 


4 make 1 whole. 


1 whole is equal to 4 


5 " 


1 " and 1 qr. 


1 " and 1 qr. make 5 


6 " 


1 " and 2 qrs. 


1 " and 2 qrs. " 6 


7 " 


1 " and 3 qrs. 


1 " and 3 qrs. " 7 


8 " 


2 wholes. 


2 wholes are equal to 8 


9 " 


2 " and 1 qr. 


2 " and 1 qr. make 9 


10 " 


2 " and 2 qrs. 


2 " and 2 qrs. " 10 



Fifths. 

5 make 1 whole. 

6 " 1 " and 1 fifth. 

7 " 1 " and 2 fifths. 

8 " 1 " and 3 " 

9 " 1 " and 4 " 
10 " 2 wholes. 



Fifths. 

1 whole is equal to 5 

1 " and 1 fifth make 6 
1 " and 2 fifths " 7 
1 " and 3 fifths " 8 

1 " and 4 fifths " 9 

2 wholes are equal to 10 



IV. — Conversion of Fractions from one Denomination to another. 

Observation. — The analysis in the following exercises must 
be made slowly, by the children themselves, upon objects, under 
the guidance of the teacher 

How many quarters are there in 3 thirds ? 

Ans. 3 thirds make 1 whole ; 1 whole is equal to 4 quarters. 

How many thirds are there in 4 halves ? 

Ans. 4 halves make 2 wholes ; 2 wholes make 6 thirds. 

How many quarters are there in 6 halves ? 

Ans. 6 halves make 3 wholes ; 3 wholes make 12 quarters. 

How many halves are there in 6 thirds ? 

Ans. 6 thirds make 2 wholes ; 2 wholes make 4 halves. 

How many halves are there in 6 quarters ? 

Ans. 6 quarters make 1 whole and a half, or 3 halves. 



V. — Addition of Fractional Numbers. 

One apple and a half, and one apple and a half, make how 
many apples ? 

2 apples and a half, and 2 apples and a half ? 



NUMBER. FOURTH STEP. 197 



3 wholes and a half, more 3 wholes 

4 wholes and a half, more 3 wholes and a half ■ 



1 whole and a half, more 1 whole and a half, more 1 whole and 
a half ? 

2 wholes and a half, more 4 wholes and a half ? 

2 wholes and a half, more 2 wholes and a half, more 2 wholes 
and a half ? 

3 wholes and 2 thirds, more 2 wholes and 1 third ? 

3 wholes and 1 third, more 2 wholes and 2 thirds, more 2 
wholes and 1 third ? 

5 wholes and 2 thirds, more 5 wholes and 2 thirds, more 1 
third ? 

3 wholes and 1 third, more 2 wholes and 2 thirds, more 3 
wholes and 1 third ? 

3 quarters, more 3 quarters ? 

2 quarters, more 1 whole and 2 quarters ? 

3 quarters, more 3 quarters, more 3 quarters ? 

1 whole and 3 quarters, more 1 whole and 1 quarter ? 

1 whole and 1 quarter, more 1 whole and 3 quarters ? 

3 wholes and 3 quarters, more 3 wholes and 3 quarters ? 
5 wholes and 1 quarter, more 3 wholes and 3 quarters, more 1 
whole and a half ? 

3 fifths, more 3 fifths ? 

2 fifths, more 4 fifths, more 3 fifths ? 

4 fifths, more 4 fifths ? 

3 wholes and 2 fifths, more 3 wholes and 3 fifths ? &c, &c, &c. 

VI. — To Find how much must be Added to a Fractional Number 
in order to Produce a Given Number. 

How much must be added to 

1 half to produce 2 wholes ? 
3 halves " 2 " 

3 " " 3 " 

2 wholes " 3 " and 1 half? 

o u a a u u 

2 " and 1 half to produce 4 " " 



198 



NUMBER. — FOURTH STEP. 



3 wholes and 1 half to produce 5 wholes ? 

5 " to produce 7 " and 1 half? 

4 " and 1 half to produce 8 " 
3 halves to produce 6 " 

5 " " 5 " 



What must be added to 










1 third to produce 




1 whole ? 




2 thirds " 




1 


(i 


and 1 third? 


1 whole " 




2 wholes and 1 third ? 


1 H (( 




2 


u 


and 2 thirds? 


1 u U 




3 


<< . 


and 1 third ? 


1 whole and 2 thirds to produce 3 


(I 




1 " 2 


a 


4 


a 




1 " 2 


U 


3 


u 


and 2 thirds ? 


2 wholes and 1 third 


u 


3 


(1 




2 " 1 


K 


3 


(( 


and 2 thirds ? 


3 " to produce 




5 


(( 


and 1 third? 


5 " " 




7 


u 


and 2 thirds ? 


10 " and 1 third to 


produce 


12 


a 




How much must be added to 








1 quarter to produce 






1 whole ? 


2, 3 quarters to produce 




1,2 


3 wholes ? 


1 whole " 






2 wholes and 2 quarters ? 



and 3 quarters to produce 2 " and 1 half ? 



How much must be added to 

2 wholes and 3 quarters to produce 5 wholes ? 



2 
2 
3 
4 
5 
3 quarters 



" 1 half 
" 1 quarter 
" 3 quarters 
to produce 



4 
6 
7 
8 
10 
10 



1 whole and 3 quarters to produce 10 



and 1 half? 
" 1 quarter? 
" 3 quarters? 

&c. 



NUMBER. — FOURTH STEP. 199 

Observation. — Other fractions require less attention than 
halves, thirds, and fourths. It is, however, necessary that the pupil 
should be slightly exercised upon them, in order that he may have 
an idea of them — more or less development being given to the 
subject, according to his age and information. Some exercises, 
similar to the preceding, should therefore be given upon fifths, 
sixths, and sevenths. 

VII. — Various Applications. 

If a person gives to two children 1 apple and 3 quarters for 
each, how many apples will he have given ? 

He gives to one child 1 pear and 1 third ; how many will he 
give to 6 children ? 

He gives 2 apples to 4 children, dividing them equally; how 
much will each have ? Ans. 1 half. 

Two apples are given to 3 children ; tbey divide them 
equally ; how much will each have ? Ans. 2 thirds. 

The same question may be asked, if 3 apples be given to 6 
children, 3 to 4 children, 4 to 5 children, 4 to 8 children, &c. 

A child has been desired to write 1 page and 3 quarters ; he 
has done the half of 1 page ; how much has he still to write ? 
Ans. 1 page and 1 quarter. 

Ask the same question, if he had 3 pages and a half to write, 
and if he has written one and a half. If he had 2 pages and 3 
quarters, and has done one and a half, &c. 

A child had bought 3 pounds of cherries ; he has eaten 1 
pound and a half of them ; how much has he left ? 

I work every morning 1 hour and a half; how many hours 
will that make in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 days ? 

I work 3 hours and 3 quarters every day ; how many hours 
will that make in 2, 3, or 4 days ? 

"What do 2 hours and a quarter, 2 hours and 3 quarters, and 1 
hour and a half, make ? 

The teacher may continue questions of this character in her 
discretion. 



SIZE. 



INTRODUOTOKY REMARKS. 

Size, as existing in all objects, is, as well as form and color, 
taken cognizance of by the eye, and soon attracts the attention 
of children. It forms also an interesting subject for lessons, from 
its blending amusement with instruction, when the children are 
permitted to test the correctness of their judgment of the size of 
any object, by actual measurement of it. It is important they 
should receive correct first impressions on a point so essential to 
future usefulness. 

In accordance with our plan in all elementary instruction, we 
begin by appealing to the intuitive perception of the quality under 
consideration, leading the children to perceive the existence of 
such a property as size; and this is effected by drawing their 
attention to various groups of objects, the components of each of 
which differ only in their dimensions. Observation being thus 
concentrated on this one property, the idea of it will be realized 
without an effort of reasoning. This may seem like giving undue 
prominence to an unimportant process, inasmuch as the knowledge 
to which it leads will be necessarily acquired by after experience ; 
but the results of an education which commences thus, laying its 
foundation in clear, distinct, and vivid ideas of all that falls within 
the legitimate range of a child's observation, will fully justify the 
principle here advocated ; materials of the highest value will be 
treasured up for the future superstructure ; habits will be encour- 
aged unwilling to be satisfied with vague, indefinite knowledge ; 



SIZE. — FIRST STEP. 201 

and the organs of the senses also, stimulated to healthy exercise, 
will learn the better to perform their appointed tasks. 

When the children have gained a clear notion of size in the 
abstract, thej will be prepared to observe its extension in different 
directions, and to gain an idea of relative size, exercising compari- 
son, calculation, and accuracy of thought and expression ; while, 
by referring to examples not present, the conceptive faculty is 
called out. In the Second Step they are led to see the necessity 
of a standard of measurement, and opportunity is afforded them 
for the practical application of those measures of length and ca- 
pacity which are in ordinary daily use. 

FIRST STEP. 

Object* — 1. To develop the general idea of size. 2. To dis- 
tinguish size, as it is exemplified in the different dimensions of 
familiar objects. 3. To exercise the faculty of comparison, in de- 
ciding upon relative size and proportion, as also that of conception, 
by applying ideas gained by actual observation to objects not in 
sight. 

I. — The Development of the General Idea. 

Plan. — The children may be led to this, by having placed before 
them sets of objects, such as cubes of wood, balls, books, &c, dif- 
fering only in size. They should be directed to separate from the 
rest those cubes, balls, &c, that are quite alike. "When the gen- 
eral idea of size has been in some measure developed by such 
exercises, the teacher, pointing to each series of objects in its 
order, may require the children to describe them, by saying to- 
gether several times, " These are small balls," " These are large 
cubes," &c. They may then be exercised on a wider variety of 
objects, such as small and large books, or small and large boxes. 
They may then be desired to touch or bring whatever the teacher 
may ask for, as the small books, or the large balls ; and lastly, to 
say whether the objects on which the teacher places her hand are 
large or small. 

* Unless the children are quite young, the first two points may be passed 
over quite rapidly, or be entirely omitted. 
9* 



202 SIZE. — FIRST STEP. 

II. Development of the Idea of Size, as Extension in Different 
Directions. 

The attention of the class must first be directed to exten- 
sion in length. The teacher may place before it laths or strings 
of different lengths, arranging them in sets of uniform size ; and 
also draw lines on the board, grouping them according to their 
;' length ; these illustrations will give the first idea of the extension 
of size in one direction. After some questions as to what differ- 
ence they see in the laths, strings, &c, the children should repeat, 
" The laths, strings, &c, are of different lengths." They may 
then obtain some idea of relative length, by the teacher holding up 
the longest and shortest lath or string, and leading them by ques- 
tions to the idea of longest and shortest. They may next be called 
on themselves to select the longest and the shortest of each class 
of objects, and having thus given practice to the eye, they may 
simultaneously express the result of the exercise, saying, " This is 
a long lath," " This is the shortest," " This is the longest," " This 
is a long string," " This is the longest," &c. Their observation 
of length may now be extended to other objects in the room ; as, 
Who has long hair ? "Who has short hair ? Point out the long- 
est form — the longest board — the longest side of the room, &c. 
After this, a variety of objects may be placed before the class, and 
the children will be required to describe the length of each by its 
suitable term. 

In the same way the children should be led to acquire the idea 
of breadth or width, and narrowness. Ribbons of differing breadths 
'afford convenient illustrations. They may be told to select the 
widest, the narrowest, &c, of these, and to arrange them accord- 
ing to their respective widths. 

The idea of thickness and thinness may be illustrated by the 
use of blocks of wood, wafers, buttons, &c, or by familiar conver- 
sation about thick and thin slices of bread and butter, or of cake. 

The kindred idea of depth may be elicited in the same manner, 
as it is exemplified in a well, a hole, a jug, or bucket ; and that of 
height, by observing the room, a tree, or the spire of a church. 
The teacher might show the real identity of depth and height, by 



SIZE. FIRST STEP. 203 

asking how the elevation of a cliff would be spoken of, under dif- 
fering positions of an observer. If he stood at the top, and looked 
down, he might say, " It is deep ; " if he stood at its base and 
looked up, he would say, " It is high." 

The several' steps of the lessons on color, form, and size, 
should be carried on simultaneously ; but after a while, objects 
may be produced, in each of which the children will recognize 
several diverse qualities. For instance, they may be told to select 
a small white round object ; a long narrow piece of blue ribbon ; 
or a shallow white plate. They will thus, in the same object, find 
an example of form, of color, and of size. 

III. Relative Size and Proportion of Objects. 

Plan. — Laths of different lengths may be placed before the 
children, from which they may first select all those which are of 
the same length, and then arrange these according to their relative 
lengths, from the shortest to the longest. The teacher may then 
require them to select two short laths, which together are equal to 
the long one she herself holds ; and afterward three or four others 
which together form the same length : this may be done also with 
tape or string. Similar exercises may be carried out with curved 
forms. Several sets of concentric circles, of varying size, cut 
out of thick pasteboard, may be placed before the children : they 
may first select all the circles of one size, and then arrange them 
according to their relative size, beginning with the largest ; finally, 
they may prove how far their arrangement of them is correct, by 
fitting them one into another till the dissected circle is complete. 

The following series of exercises will be found suitable at this 
step : 

Let the children determine the relative lengths of lines drawn 
in differing directions, as to which is the shortest, and which the 
longest ; and let them decide the relative distances between dots 
placed in different positions on the board ; or the distance between 
various parallel lines ; or the relative size of angles, &c. They 
may also determine which of a number of lines slope the most, 
and which the least — first, by comparing them with a vertical line 



204 SIZE. — SECOND STEP. 

drawn on another part of the board, and afterward without this 
help. The same exercise may be carried out with horizontal lines. 
The children may also determine the proportion which one line 
bears to another — whether it is half its length, or double its 
length, &c, without at present attaining actual precision. The 
children should pursue these exercises till they are enabled to 
judge of the relative size of an object by the eye, with tolerable 
accuracy. 

They may next be called upon to divide straight lines drawn 
in different directions, into two, three, four, &c, equal or given 
parts ; their companions being required to give an opinion as to 
the correctness with which the direction is executed. This exer- 
cise may be carried out also upon curved lines, and may be applied 
to the lengths of different parts of the room and of its furniture. 

The power of conception may be called out, by referring to 
things not present ; for example, the children may be required to 
say what animals have long or short tails — long or short ears ; 
what streets or roads are broad, narrow, or long. A variety of 
similar illustrations will at once suggest themselves to the mind of 
the intelligent teacher. 



SECOND STEP. 

Ohject. — To lead the children to perceive the necessity for the 
adoption of standard measures of length, &c, and to make them 
familiar with those established by law or usage. 

Plan. — The teacher holds up a long and a short lath, or a long 
and a short piece of string, and asks the children what they can 
say of them; thus awakening the consciousness of their having 
already acquired ideas of general and relative size. They should 
then be led to feel that this is not enough. The teacher might 
suppose herself wanting some ribbon for her bonnet, and might 
ask whether it is probable, if she sent to the shop for a long piece, 
that they would know exactly how much to send ? Having, by 
a few such illustrations, convinced the children that something 
more definite than the general and relative measures, long, short, 



SIZE. SECOND STEP. 205 

broad, narrow, &c, is absolutely necessary, the teacher may show 
them a yard measure, and tell them that this is a standard of 
length, which has been universally adopted in this country, and 
that it is called a yard. She may then send to another room, and 
ask some one to cut a yard of string, and send it to her. The 
children should be told to measure this ; they will find it exactly 
the same length as the standard yard she had produced. It is de- 
sirable that some such act as this should fix the idea on the mind. 
The children may then be told that the yard-measure is this length 
in every store in the country, as well as in the next room. 

The standard measures of length might be marked horizontally 
on the floor, or perpendicularly on the walls of the school-room, in 
order to accustom the children to the use of them in measuring 
lines and objects. 

A Lesson on Measuring by the Standard Measures of Length. 

No opportunity should be lost of giving practice to the eye in 
determining the length of objects by these measurements. Chil- 
dren are greatly interested in themselves endeavoring to determine 
the size of things, and in having their judgment tested by actual 
trial. The children should carefully observe the length of the 
yard, as it is held by the teacher in various positions, and at vari- 
ous distances from the eye : they should notice the apparent 
change which takes place in its length under each change of posi- 
tion, that they may be prepared to take this fact into consideration 
when calculating the size of objects in different positions and at 
various distances. They may also be required to find two objects, 
as two pieces of string, or two laths, which are together equal to 
the yard ; thus introducing the idea of the half-yard, as being the 
length of one of these. Again, they may produce four similar 
objects, which, when united, also form a complete yard ; and thus 
gain the idea of a quarter of a yard, as being the length of one 
of these. 

In a further lesson, the idea of a foot may be communicated 
in the same manner, showing that it is the third of a yard ; and 
also the idea of the inch and of the nail. The children should be 
exercised in determining the relative size of these measures, i. e., 



206 SIZE, — SECOND STEP. 

the proportion each of them bears to the yard ; and also their 
positive size, as unvarying standard measures. 

These exercises may be continued, until the eye can decide on 
particular lengths with tolerable accuracy ; after which the chil- 
dren may be called on to determine the length of lines combined 
in various figures ; the circumference or girth of various objects ; 
they may then proceed to dimensions of greater extent — those, for 
instance, of the floor and walls of the schoolroom, or of the play- 
ground. 

Dry Measure. 

Bring before the children the peck, the half-peck, and the 
quarter-peck measures, and ask if they know what things are 
bought and sold by this measure ? Then select the largest of the 
measures, and having told a child to fill it with bran, turn out its 
contents upon a cloth, and tell the class that the measure is called 
" a peck measure," and that the quantity of bran it contained is 
called " a peck " of bran. Then require a child to fill the next 
smaller measure, and to empty its contents into the peck measure. 
How much of the peck does it fill ? Half of it. By what name, 
then, may this smaller measure be called ? If this is half a peck, 
how many of them will make one peck? Prove this by measure- 
ment. Then let the children repeat, " Two half pecks, equal to 
one peck." The same plan may be pursued with the quarter- 
peck ; and when these measures have become familiar, the children 
may be questioned upon them, thus : 

If one person buy four quarters of a peck of bran, and another 
buy half a peck, how much has the one more than the other ? 
How many half pecks in four quarter pecks ? How many whole 
pecks ? If I pay five cents for half a peck of peas, what must I 
pay for one peck ? Bequire the children to go through the pro- 
cess thus : One half peck costs five cents ; two half pecks, which 
are equal to one peck, will cost two times five cents, or ten cents. 
If the teacher cannot produce a bushel measure, the children may 
be told that four pecks are equal to a measure called a bushel. 
They may then be questioned on that measure also. 

The following table of these measures of capacity may now be 
written on the blackboard, thus : 



SIZE. — SECOND STEP. 207 

Quarter. Half Peck. Peck. Bushel. 

2 = 1 

2 = 1 

4 = 1 

The children should then read out the table once or twice 
simultaneously, that the teacher may ascertain that it is under- 
stood. They should then learn it thoroughly by silent repetition. 
They may afterward be required to write it out from memory. 

The first four denominations in wine measure may be treated 
in a similar way, viz., gill, pint, quart, and gallon. Beyond this it 
is perhaps hardly profitable to go until the children come to learn 
the tables. 

Actual measures, both those of linear and superficial extension, 
and those of solid and liquid capacity, should be set before the 
children, until both sight and touch are perfectly familiar with 
them. Practice in these, and in the use of the scales and weights 
used in lessons on weight, should precede the learning by heart of 
formal tables of weights and measures. Such practice affords 
most useful mental exercise, and secures a thorough understanding 
of the importance and value of standard measures. When this 
has been attained, the children may commit the tables to memory 
with advantage, and then, with a thorough comprehension of their 
several gradations, proceed to the acquirement of facility in the 
practical application of them. 



WEIGHT. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

Many important scientific truths are involved in this subject, 
but it is obvious that scientific details are inexpedient in lessons 
such as these, which are intended to help those whose minds are 
just opening to the perception of truth as it meets them in daily 
experience. Still, while the whole of truth cannot just yet be told, 
because the mind of the little listener cannot properly receive it, 
it is essential that whatever is told should be part of that great 
whole, on the further steps of which the more matured mind may 
exercise itself without having to retrace the path. 

In the subject now before us it is important that the teacher should 
remember that the weight of any object is the force with which it 
is drawn toward the centre of the earth. Any one who would raise 
a heavy stone from the ground must exert an amount of force in 
lifting it up, somewhat exceeding that by which the earth's attrac- 
tion drags it down. It is chiefly in this aspect of resistance that 
the property of weight is an object of infantile perception. 

Through what medium does a child attain to this perception ? 
Possibly through several bodily powers. It is not by means of 
the sense of touch alone that the idea is attained ; for this sense 
may be perfect, where a child is too weak to lift a pencil. It is in 
truth through the exercise of muscular power that a weight is 
raised or moved ; and therefore it is by this capability, aided and 
directed by sight and touch, that the idea of weight in the abstract 
is acquired, and different degrees of it compared. 



WEIGHT. FIRST STEP. 209 

FIKST STEP. 

Object. — To lead the children to the perception of weight in 
the abstract, and to the difference in the relative weight of vari- 
ous substances, both solids and liquids, as compared with their 
relative bulk. 

Plan for Developing the General Idea of Weight. — The chil- 
dren should be told to lift various objects presented to them, or to 
poise them in their hands, and to mention any differences they 
perceive. They will notice that the things they have lifted differ 
in weight, some possessing much weight, others comparatively 
little. They should then learn that those things of which the 
weight is considerable, are said to be heavy, and that those of 
which the weight is little, are called light. They should then be 
taught, by the comparison of objects of various weight, properly 
to apply the terms heavy and light, heavier and lighter, heaviest 
and lightest ; and lastly, let the children arrange them in order ac- 
cording to their weight. The teacher may then lead the children 
to analyze their perception of weight. When you lift a very 
heavy stone, by what means do you raise it 1 By putting out all 
our strength. And when you lift a feather % We do so with great 
ease. 

Plan for Developing the Idea of Relative Weight, and of Weight 
as Compared with Relative Bulk. — Bring before the children a 
miscellaneous collection of objects, differing in both weight and 
bulk, as also objects of the same bulk, but differing in weight ; as, 
lead, iron, coal, wood, cork, bags of shavings, sand, feathers, shot, 
peas, pebbles, beans, &c. ; a phial of quicksilver ; also various 
liquids, as water, milk, spirits, oil, &c. 

1. Develop idea of hulk. Exercise the children in finding 
objects great in bulk, small in bulk, same in bulk ; lastly arrang- 
ing them in order according to their bulk. 

2. Compare objects as to weight and bulk ; as, This cork has 
much bulk, but little weight ; This lead has little bulk, but much 
weight, &c. 

3. Children find objects same in bulk, but differing in weight ; 
same in weight, but differing in bulk. 



210 WEIGHT. SECOND STEP. 

4. Compare solid objects as to weight, at first making simply 
individual comparisons ; as, This lead is the heaviest, this stone is 
next heaviest, this wood is next heaviest, &c. 

5. Let the children now make a general classification of ob- 
jects as to their weight ; as, Metals are heaviest, minerals next 
heaviest, wood next, textile fabrics next, &c. 

6. In a similar way compare liquids, giving water as the 
standard. 

A small quantity of oil may be poured into a phial, and upon 
it some water ; the water will displace the oil, and sink below it. 
"Why ? It is the heavier liquid. Then some quicksilver may be 
added ; it again sinks below the water. Why ? Because quick- 
silver is heavier than either water or oil. In a similar way com- 
pare the other liquids. 

The children should be encouraged to describe the facts they 
observe in their own language ; as, The feathers are light, the shot 
is heavy ; oil is light, quicksilver is heavy. They should also be 
led to perceive that there may be large quantities of some sub- 
stances, as of bran or feathers, which, though of great bulk, pos- 
sess but little weight ; whilst but a small portion of other sub- 
stances, as, for instance, of metals, is heavy. They will thus 
arrive at the conclusion that the bulk of an object is no reliable 
indication of its specific weight. 



SECOND STEP. 

Object. — To lead the children to perceive the necessity for 
adopting standard measures of weight, and to make them prac- 
tically acquainted with those in most common use. 

Plan. — The children have already been led to see that heavy 
and light are relative terms — the thing which, when compared 
with one object, is called light, being said to be heavy when com- 
pared with another. Hence arises the necessity for an unchang- 
ing standard of weight, with which the weights of substances may 
be determined.* 

* Exercises with scales and weights may be used at this step with much 



WEIGHT. SECOND STEP. 211 

In developing this idea, the same plan may be pursued as in 
illustrating the necessity of standard measures of size. The chil- 
dren should also here be taught the use of scales and weights, and 
the necessity of standard weights, in the same manner as the 
measures of size were learned (page 201.) They should be much 
practised in judging of the weight of miscellaneous objects, always 
testing the correctness of their judgments by varying the objects 
before the class. As a last exercise, the children may learn the 
table of avoirdupois weight. This may be formed after the ex- 
ample given in the lesson on dry measure. 

In all the exercises on weight, the pound is taken as the 
standard. 

In exercising the children to judge of weight, begin by pass- 
ing around the class weights, or objects, that weigh just a pound. 
Tell the children their weight, and request them to hold them in 
their right hands, and think just how heavy they are, as they will 
soon have some other objects, to decide whether they are heavier 
or lighter than this weight, and how much. Next pass around 
half-pound or two-pound weights, requesting the children to hold 
them in their right hands, just as they did the pound weights, and 
think how much they weigh. "When the weights have gone 
round, call for the judgments of the class, and let one of those who 
come the nearest to the correct weight, test the correctness of 
the guessing by weighing. These exercises should be frequently 
repeated with miscellaneous objects, until they can judge with tol- 
erable accuracy of the weight of various objects. Request them 
to bring in objects of a given weight, always testing, or rather 
allowing them to test, the correctness of the selection by weigh- 
ing. These exercises never fail to interest the children, and it is 
astonishing how accurate they will soon become in judging of 
weight, and thus will have cultivated a sense of great practical 
utility, but which is ordinarily neglected. 

advantage. It is better to begin at first with the larger weights, as, the pound, 
half-pound, and quarter-pound, these being most readily distinguished. 



SOUND. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

Few things are more useful, in all positions of life, than a 
delicate and discriminating perception of the varied qualities of 
sound, with facilities of reproducing known sounds at will. It is 
on these attainments that the effectiveness of the good reader and 
speaker, as well as that of the skilled musician, chiefly depends. 
These faculties are in constant activity in all the familiar scenes 
of daily life and social intercourse ; unitedly they form one noble 
distinctive feature, by which man is exalted far above all other 
animate beings of God's creation, and, in their exercise, may be. 
found at all times a fruitful source of innocent, profitable, and ex- 
alting pleasure. 

Under judicious exercise, the organ of hearing is susceptible 
of a high degree of perceptive cultivation. The organs of voice 
also are equally capable of practical improvement ; and the earlier 
in life the education of these organs is commenced, the more cer- 
tain and satisfactory will be the results attained. 



FIRST STEP. 

Object. — To develop the general idea of sound, and also to 
show that it possesses great variety. 

Plan. — The teacher to utter some sounds with her own voice, 
and also to produce others by means of sonorous objects ; thus 
leading the children to perceive the existence of the quality of 



SOUND. — FIKST STEP. 213 

sound, and to observe that it is made known to us by the organ 
of hearing. They may then be exercised in distinguishing com- 
mon and familiar sounds, and in determining by the ear by what 
r means they are produced ; and in endeavoring to imitate some of 
them by the voice. The teacher may then sing some simple tune, 
to awaken the perception of melody, and to encourage the dawn- 
ings of musical taste. 

Subjects for Lessons at this Step. 

1. Objects for producing different tones to be sounded, and the 
children to be exercised in deciding by the sense of hearing only, 
from what kind of substance the sound was produced ; as, a bell, 
a drum, a glass full of water, another half full, another empty, 
china, different metals, &c. 

2. Sounds made by men and animals to be imitated ; the chil- 
dren to say what the sound is intended to represent. 

3. Simultaneous movements to be carried out, especially those 
involving sound in measured time ; such as clapping hands, march- 
ing in time, stamping with the feet, simultaneous counting, &c. 

4. The children to be called on to decide which of their com- 
panions is speaking, having first been directed to close their eyes. 

5. The teacher to sing some very simple melodies, some of 
them quick and lively, others slow and solemn ; the children to 
say which of them they prefer. 

Sketch of a Lesson on Sounds. 



I. — Sounds distin- 
guished. 



I. — Children to say with what they 
hear. Teacher tells them she wants to 
find out who can hear best. She goes be- 
hind a screen, or asks the children to close 
their eyes, rings a bell, asks what the noise 
was, and how made ; rings a quarter dol- 
lar on the table, blows a whistle, sounds a 
tuning-fork, strikes an empty glass, also a 
glass full of water, knocks with a ham- 
mer, with a ruler, &c, the children always 
deciding how each sound is made. Should 
they be at a loss, the teacher produces the 



214 



SOUND. — FIKST STEP. 



II. — Sounds com- 
pared. 



III. — Sounds ar- 
ranged 



noise in their presence, desiring them to 
listen in order that they may discover how 
it was produced. 

II. — 1. Children told they are going to 
hear four of the sounds they heard before, 
in order that they may decide which are 
most alike. The teacher, still behind the 
screen, touches the bell so as to produce 
one tone, rings the quarter on the table, 
sounds the tuning-fork, rings the bell 
sharply. Children decide by ear that the 
first and third sounds resemble each other; 
also the second and fourth. 

2. Teacher again sounds the tuning- 
fork, blows the whistle, touches the bell so 
as to produce one sound ; children to de- 
scribe whether the third sound resembles 
more the first or the second. 

3. Teacher strikes a small hammer on 
the table, strikes an empty glass, knocks 
with her heel, knocks a full glass. Chil- 
dren compare sounds, and decide which 
resemble each other. 

III. — Children hear the sounds once 
more, to decide which they like best, and 
then arrange them in the order of sweet- 
ness or melody, going from the least to 
the most musical. When they disagree, 
compare the sounds, and train the ear in 
deciding. 

The sounds will probably stand as fol- 
lows, written on the board : 

1. Sound of ruler on wood. 

2. Hammer on wood. 

3. Full glass. 

4. Empty glass. 

5. Coin. 

6. Bell. 

1. Whistle. 
8. Tuning-fork. 



SOUND. — SECOND STEP. 



215 



SECOND STEP. 



Sketch of Lesson for this Step. 

Point. — To exercise the children in distinguishing sounds, and 
also tune, in order to cultivate an ear for music. 



I. — Voices distin- 
guished. 



II. — Sounds distin- 
guished as to Times. 



HI. — Sounds distin- 



I. — Bring a girl and a boy before the 
children. Require them to give their 
names, and let the rest call them by their 
names. Tell the children in their seats 
that these are going to say something, 
and that they must listen to their voices 
so as to distinguish them. Let the boy 
and girl repeat individually, " The clock 
strikes." Require the rest to notice the 
difference in their voices. Bring another 
boy. Let each of the boys repeat the 
same sentence, the rest to decide as before. 
Bring another girl, and repeat the same 
exercise, the rest deciding. 

Tell the children that they must now 
decide on the voice without seeing the 
speaker. Put the two boys out of sight ; 
touch the boy who is to speak, and let the 
children decide who it was that spoke. 
Proceed in the same manner with the girls. 
Put all four out of sight, letting one of 
them repeat the same sentence, or sing 
a verse, exercising the rest in deciding 
whether it was a boy or girl who spoke, 
and which boy or girl. 

II. — Require them to clap hands as the 
teacher counts one, two, three ; children 
to count as the teacher claps hands. Re- 
peat these exercises four, five, and six 
times, instead of three, and call on indi- 
vidual children to perform them. Strike 
the pointer against the frame of the board, 
making the beats regular and irregular, till 
they can distinguish the difference. 

III. — Sing some very simple melodies, 



216 SOUND. — SECOND STEP. 



guished as to Time and 
Tune. 



without words. Let the children decide 
which they like the best. Sing these 
melodies twice over, with or without the 
words, first slowly and then quickly. Try 
and get them to see that some airs are 
naturally plaintive, and some lively. 



LIST OF LESSONS ON SOUNDS, FOE THIS STEP. 

Hammer, Bell, "Whistle. 
Glasses full and empty. 
China, Delft, Glass. 

Coins of different metals ; as, gold, silver, copper, selecting 
those of as nearly the same size as may be. 
Voices. 

Further exercises should also be had to lead the children to 
discover that musical sounds have the three distinct properties of 
length or duration, pitch or tone, and force or volume. At first 
these qualities should be taught separately, and the idea of time, as 
being the most easy of apprehension, should be that commenced 
with. The children should also be led to observe that there may 
be either a prolongation of the sound of the notes themselves, or 
of the interval or pause between them. 

Plan. — To give the children the idea of the quality of time as 
applied to sound, some notes should be uttered, at first very slowly, 
and afterward rapidly, making them observe and state the differ- 
ence in these two methods. Next the teacher may sing some 
simple air, requiring the children to listen and beat time, first under 
guidance, and then unaided. They should then practise singing 
an air in unison with the teacher, she taking the lead and beating 
time. After this they should sing the exercises by themselves, 
she beating time ; and lastly, they may be exercised in both sing- 
ing and beating time themselves. Practice in simultaneous move- 
ments, actions, and utterances, helps to the cultivation of a correct 
perception of time ; and children derive great pleasure from such 
measured simultaneous exercises, for they appeal to the powerful 
agent of sympathy. Children may easily be taught to appreciate 



SOUND. SECOND STEP. 217 

the difference in the intervals between notes, by counting whilst 
the sounds are being nttered — at first the time between the notes 
being considerable, and therefore obvious. 

The next quality to be brought under observation is that of 
pitch or tone. The teacher should run up the common scale, 
through a whole octave, to give the' children an idea that there 
are different notes ; and then by selecting a deep note, and after- 
ward sounding its octave, point out their agreement. The class 
may then be practised in imitating these sounds. At this point 
various exercises may be introduced which will greatly interest 
the class, and they may now be taught that each sound is repre- 
sented by its particular symbol ; and by a comparison of the let- 
ters as used as representatives of sounds in music, with the use of 
them as symbols of sound in language, they may be taught the 
mode in which one thing may represent another, and to what end 
standard symbols have been established for general convenience. 
If the children cannot grasp the idea at this step, though in most 
cases it may be impressed upon the mind, it should not be lost 
sight of by the teacher. 

The third quality of musical sounds which the children should 
learn to distinguish, is that of force or volume. This depends 
upon the power by which tones are produced, and may be in- 
% creased or diminished indefinitely. It may be exemplified by 
comparing the deep sound of the ocean in a storm, or the roar of 
the majestic lion, with the faint cry of the infant. To give the 
idea, the teacher should sing a note in a soft but steady tone, fol- 
lowing it up by another in a loud and full tone, calling upon the 
children first to state the difference between the two, and then 
themselves to join in the exercise. This should afterward be fre- 
quently repeated by the children alone, loud or soft, at the discre- 
tion of the teacher. They may then be exercised on different 
notes in the same way. The next practice should be to commence 
a note softly, and increase it gradually, till it become loud, and 
then to begin loud and to end soft, This is a most important 
exercise in aid of a right management of the voice. 

These three qualities may be illustrated by school songs, and 
thus the style of singing in a primary school much improved. 
10 



218 SOUND. — SECOND STEP. 

Learning pieces of poetry, not only as an exercise of memory, 
but also of intonation, would be very suitably introduced among 
lessons on sound. 

For a course of lessons and exercises in the Third Step, as 
leading to music, we cannot do better than recommend to teachers 
the use of the " Primary School Song Book," by Lowell Mason 
and Geo. Jas. Webb, and published by Mason Brothers, New 
York. 



LANGUAGE. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

Although direct and systematic lessons on language are, for 
the most part, unsuited to a primary school, much may still be 
done by the teacher to cultivate the habit of correct speaking. 
To this end care must be taken that ideas communicated to the 
children are conveyed to them in appropriate terms, and that, 
when giving expression to their own thoughts, they do so in cor- 
rect and appropriate language. 

In carrying out these objects, the following points deserve 
special attention : 

1. All erroneous expressions made use of by the children 
should be immediately corrected, and the proper words fixed upon 
the mind by repetition. This incidental mode of teaching is the 
most natural and simple method of correcting those errors in lan- 
guage which the children of the poor acquire at their homes, and 
of supplying those deficiencies which belong to their as yet limited 
vocabulary. 

2. In the daily work of the school room, all definitions of the 
meaning of words, and all descriptions of places, objects, or events, 
whether given by the teacher to the children, or elicited from 
them, should be clothed in simple and definite language, and fixed 
in the memory by repetition. A double object is thus attained ; 
the mind is stored with knowledge for its own benefit, and fur- 
nished with appropriate language in which to convey it to others. 

3. The children should be trained to give complete, answers to 



220 LANGUAGE. 

all questions which are put to them. Teachers too often content 
themselves with such answers as merely indicate that the child is 
in possession of the idea they wish to convey, without caring for 
the clearness or otherwise with which that idea is expressed ; 
whereas experience teaches that nothing more tends to make an 
idea clear to the mind, and to render it a permanent possession, 
than the act of clothing it in accurate language. Monosyllabic 
answers, as " Yes " and " No," should be rejected, except when 
they express all that can be said on the subject. 

Besides the above incidental mode of teaching language, which 
should be adopted in all the classes of a primary school, the fol- 
lowing exercises are given for the special use of children from six 
to eight years of age. 

The following exercises in Language are designed as Third 
Step lessons : 

Exercise I. 

To form sentences from given words — (1) the name of an 
object, (2) a word expressing* quality, and (3) some part of the 
verb " to be." 

Plan. — The children to name a number of objects, beginning, 
for example, with those of the various articles of furniture, &c, in 
the room ; the teacher to write these names under each other on 
the slate, requiring the children to spell each word as it is written, 
assisting or correcting when necessary. 

The children to be then required to say something regarding 
each object, the teacher helping them to determine how far the 
terms they apply are appropriate. The teacher to add these de- 
scriptions to the names already on the slate, and thus lead the 
children on to the formation of simple sentences, in their shortest 
form. A few examples follow : 

The ink is black. 
The slate is smooth. 
The form is long. 
That window is large. 
This pencil is sharp, &c. 



LANGUAGE. 221 

The children should then read over the sentences, and be led 
to observe that each begins with a capital letter, and ends with a 
full stop. The slate may then be turned away, and the class re- 
quired to reproduce the lesson on their own slates, without its aid. 
"When this has been done, the slate should be again referred to, 
that they may correct their exercises. 

The children may be supplied with little books, in which to 
write out these lessons at home. For some time they should not 
be required to originate anything for themselves, but merely to 
reproduce that which has been taught in school. They will find 
pleasure in doing that which they can do well. 

When all the objects in the room have formed the subjects of 
such lessons, those in the playground, the street, or in the fields, 
may be resorted to, gradually extending the circle to more remote 
objects. At the least a dozen lessons of this description should be 
given. 

Exercise II. 

The forming of contracted sentences. Of these there are two 
varieties : 1. That in which different qualities are ascribed to one 
and the same object. 2. That in which the same quality is ascribed 
to various objects. 

First kind : The describing an object by various qualities. 

Plan. — The teacher writes the name of some familiar object 
upon the school slate, and calls upon the children to apply it to its 
various qualities, writing them down as they give them. The 
teacher should assist the children in determining the suitability or 
otherwise of the qualities suggested, and also in spelling the more 
difficult words. 

We may suppose a lesson in which the given name is " paper." 
It would present itself in some such form as this : 

The paper is white. 
The paper is thin. 
The paper is smooth. 
The paper is pliable, &c. 

The teacher should next lead the children to notice that the 



222 LANGUAGE 

word "paper" need only be written once, and that the four sen- 
tences may be contracted into one. Then the teacher, directed by 
the children, writes : 

" Paper is white, thin, smooth, and pliable." 

The children then read this over, and are led to perceive the ne- 
cessity for commas in those places where the words "the paper is" 
are omitted, and also the use of the word " and" between the two 
last words of the sentence. Lastly, the slate is turned away, and 
the children reproduce and correct the lesson, as in the case of the 
former exercise. 

The words, chalk, iron, clay, coal, salt, water, air, snow, ice, 
sugar, glass, leather, thread, a pen, a needle, fire, wood, &c, &c, 
are suitable for lessons of this kind. The children may be encour- 
aged to reproduce such lessons at home, forming, in the first place, 
the several simple sentences, and then contracting them as above 
suggested. Two or three such exercises will generally suffice for 
one lesson. 

Second kind : The same quality attributed to several objects. 

Plan. — A quality selected, sentences made, contracted, repro- 
duced, and corrected, as above. 

Glass is brittle. 

Chalk is brittle. 

Coal is brittle. 
Glass, coal, and chalk are brittle. 

Iron is hard. 

Flint is hard. 

Glass is hard, &c. 
Iron, flint, and glass are hard. 

The children to be led to notice the stops, as before, and the 
change of the word " is" for " are." 

Subjects for sentences of this kind : Black, white, light, 
heavy, bright, sweet, sour or acid, cold, tough, porous, inflam- 
mable, soluble, fusible, pliable, &c, &c. 



LANGUAGE. 223 



Exercise III. 

• An exercise on discrimination in the use of words. 
Select an object, say a tree, and let the children apply to it 
every descriptive term that they can think of as applicable to any 
tree, thus : A tree may be young, old, tall, short, graceful, stunt- 
ed, withered, green, bare, branching, large, small, smooth, gnarled, 
fruit-bearing, barren, upright, drooping, &c. 

Then let them select all the terms that might possibly be ap- 
plied to any one tree, and thus draw out a description of two or 
more trees from the above list of attributes, thus : 

The tree is young, small, graceful, green, and smooth ; or, 
The tree is old, tall, large, branching, and fruit-bearing ; or, 
The tree is old, short, stunted, withered, gnarled, and barren. 
Subjects for these exercises : Flower, man, monkey, house, 
sky, river, horse, mountain, book, water, an apple, &c. 

Exercise IV. 

Following the order in which a lesson on an object is usually 
given, we now take the verb " Have ;" and the children are re- 
quired to form sentences, naming the parts of objects, and the 
number of those parts introducing that verb. 

1. To form sentences, describing the parts of objects, without 
reference to their number : 

The tree has leaves. A bird has wings. 

The cow has feet. The cube has faces. 

2. Contracted sentences of this character : 

The tree has branches. 
The tree has leaves. 
The tree has roots, &c. 

Contracted — The tree has leaves, roots, and branches. The 
contracted form may be at once adopted, as its nature is under- 
stood from previous exercises. 



224 LANGUAGE. 

3. Sentences in which the several parts of an object may be 
distinguished by a word expressive of quality : 

The cat has soft feet. 

The knife has a sharp point. 

The cow has a long tail. 

4. Sentences in which the several parts of an object may be 
described by their number : 

The cow has four feet. 
The cow has a tail. 
The cow has two horns. 

Contracted — The cow has four feet, two horns, and a tail. 

The preceding exercises are confined to objects described as to 
their qualities and their parts, and only one example of each is 
given; but the teacher will, of course, take care that the children have 
as many as are necessary. We now proceed to sentences which 
include words expressing action or condition. As the vocabulaiy 
of the children at this stage is usually very limited, it is desirable 
to increase the stock of words at their command. This may be 
done by writing out lists of the names of objects, and of words 
expressive of actions. Each list should be formed of words which 
may be arranged under some general head, itself familiar to the 
children, and thus the principle of association will be brought to 
the help of the memory. Rigid classification should be avoided, 
as well as the introduction of terms difficult of explanation. 

The children may be assisted in drawing up lists of words ex- 
pressive of domestic and social relationship, of trades, occupations, 
and professions, or of the names of quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and 
insects ; trees, garden vegetables, fruits, grain ; minerals, metals, 
and liquids ; articles of clothing, household furniture, &c. By 
way of variety, the children may be required to name the objects 
they have seen in the sky, in the field, or on the river ; the vari- 
ous goods sold in a grocer's shop ; the tools used by the carpen- 
ter, the shoemaker, or the smith. 



LANGUAGE. 225 

Similar lists of words descriptive of actions should be made, 
beginning with those describing the powers and capabilities of the 
several organs of the human frame : 

The hand — open, shut, hold, catch, grasp, &c. 

The foot — stand, walk, run, stamp, dance, &c. 

The mouth and voice — eat, drink, sip, speak, sing, &c. 

The eye and ear — look, stare, gaze, listen, hearken, &c. 

This may also be extended to acts of the mind ; as, think, 
study, consider, invent, love, hate. 

Actions peculiar to specific trades and occupations — cut, stitch, 
sow, plough, reap, mow, bore, saw, &c. 

Actions characteristic of certain animals — walk, trot, gallop, 
fly, swim, crawl, climb, &c. 

Sounds made by animals — sing, bark, neigh, low, bray, croak, 
hum, hiss, &c. 

The children should also be required to write out words ex- 
pressing some of those less evident actions effected in plants; as, 
grow, increase, spread, shelter, fade, wither, &c. ; or those applied 
to liquids ; as, pour, drop, flow, overflow, &c, &c. 

The following remarks point out how such lists of words may 
be made so as to give them interest : 

Suppose the children required to make a list of insects. Each 
of the children in turn gives the name of an insect, which is 
written on the board. When they can remember no others, the 
teacher may supply the names of any familiar insects they may 
have overlooked. The board may then be covered, and the 
children required to reproduce them. This done, the list may again 
be showed them, that they may correct errors in spelling, and 
supply any words they may have omitted. 

These lists may also form very useful lessons for home work. 
In correcting them, the teacher asks the first child in the class 
to read out his list, writing it upon the board as he does so. 
Another child is then desired to mention any words his list may 
contain which are not already on the board. The same plan to be 
adopted with the other children, until a complete copy of all the 
names the children have noted will be formed upon the board. 
10* 



226 LANGUAGE. 

From this the children are then permitted to correct their errors 
in spelling, and to complete their several lists of words.* 

Much varied information may be given to the children in con- 
nection with the new words they learn as these lessons proceed ; 
but great care should be taken that the lesson on language is not 
lost sight of in the communication of this general information. 

Exercise V. 

Sentences containing words expressing action. I. The sub- 
ject and the action complete the sense. II. An additional word 
is required to complete the sense. III. Exercises on sentences 
of both these classes. 

I. Sentences containing a word expressive of an act which, 
with its subject, makes a complete and significant sentence. 

Plan. — The teacher writes in column on the board a list of 
words expressing actions ; as, stand, walk, run, &c. ; and the chil- 
dren, with the assistance of the teacher, form these into sentences, 
by the addition of the name of an object, animal, &c. They are 
then erased, and the children reproduce the exercise without help. 

1. Sentences where the subject and the action complete the 

sense : 

The horse stands. 
The child sleeps. 
The scholar sits. 

These exercises to be repeated, putting both the object and 
the act in the plural form : 

The horses stand. 
The children sleep. 
The scholars sit, &c. 

The actions characteristic of animals, and the sounds they 
utter, will afford great variety in these exercises : 

* It is not necessary that any large number of lists of words should be made 
before proceeding to the following exercises. The object is to furnish with 
words, and the teacher may resort to the lists whenever the introduction of 
new words is found desirable. 



LANGUAGE. 227 

The fish swims. 
The bird flies. 
The serpent crawls. 
The bee hums. 
The frog croaks. 
The dog barks, &c. 

II. — Sentences in which, beside the subject and the object, an 
additional word is required to complete the sense : 

I hold — the pencil. 

He opens — the book. 

The monkey climbed — the tree, &c* 

The children should be led to see the necessity for each addi- 
tional word. 

Actions peculiar to trades or employments : 

The gardener digs — the ground. 

The tailor cuts — the cloth. 

The carpenter planes — the wood, &c. 

As a more extended exercise, the name of the instrument by 
which an act is performed may be introduced into the sentence : 

The gardener digs the ground with a spade. 

The tailor cuts the cloth with scissors. 

The grocer weighs sugar with a pair of scales, &c. 

"Words expressing quality may now be added to the subject or 
object ; as, 

The little boys play. 

The bright sun is shining. 

The strong old horse drew the heavy wagon. 

Great variety may be given to these lessons, and the attention 
and interest of the children well sustained, by leading them to try 

* The teacher need not object to the use of the past or future tense of the 
verb, provided the children use it correctly. 



228 LANGUAGE. 

to find out how many qualifying words may be added to a sen- 
tence, and the peculiar force of each. 

Exercise VI. 

In the exercises which follow, the children are led to observe 
and describe some of those circumstances which are connected 
with various actions, and so identified with them that the mention 
of one is often suggestive of another. For example, such sen- 
tences as, The fish swims, The worm crawls, The bird flies, which 
call up simultaneously in the mind the ideas, In the water, On the 
ground, In the air. 

Combinations such as these are simple, and readily understood ; 
those of a more abstract nature should be avoided. There should 
be no attempt to lead where the children cannot follow. 

Sentences. 

The children sit on the forms. 

Lions live in forests. 

Ships sail on the ocean. 

The leaves fall on the ground, &c. 

Sentences with phrases expressive of time : 
The sun rises in the morning. 
"We prepared our lessons last night. 
The birds sing in the morning. 
Dogs bark during the night, &c. 

Sentences with words expressing the maimer of performing an 
act: 

The child walks slowly. 
The dog barks loudly. 
The lion growls fiercely. 
Jane writes neatly. 

As an example of the manner in which these lessons may be 
varied, we give the following sentences, in which two or more of 
the preceding circumstances are expressed : 



LANGUAGE. 229 

Place and Manner. — The children sit quietly at the desks, &c. 
Time and Manner. — The rain fell violently during the night. 
Time and Place. — The rooks rest all night on the trees. 

This is, perhaps, as far as it is desirable to lead the children of 
an infant school in such lessons as these. The subject may close 
with an example showing the mode in which two or more of the 
preceding sets of exercises may be combined in the simple descrip- 
tion of an object. The teacher need not, however, wait till the 
foregoing exercises have been finished before such examples are 
introduced. 

An Apple, described as to its qualities, its several component 
parts, its mode of growth, and its uses, or as to any other simple 
fact connected with it. 

Exercises 1 and 2. An apple may be round, russet, smooth, 
juicy, odorous, wholesome, acid, and refreshing. 

Exercise 3. It has a stem, a rind, or outer covering, a pulp 
inside the peel, a core, and seeds. 

Exercise 4. It grows in orchards and gardens ; it is sold at 
stalls in the streets, in fruit markets, at greengrocers' shops, and 
is used for making cider, as a table fruit, and for making apple 
pies. 

In working out such descriptions, the children should be re- 
quired to point out the value of each word, and to state what it 
adds to the description. 

Thus, in the preceding lesson, the word round describes the 
shape of the apple ; the word russet, the color of it ; the word 
smooth, the nature of its surface ; the word sweet, its taste ; the 
word wholesome, the effects of it when eaten as food, &c. 

Treated in this way, the lesson becomes truly a lesson on lan- 
guage. The children learn to distinguish between the idea and 
the word representing it. 

Such a course of instruction on language, given in connection 
with objects, insensibly develops the perception of the nature of 
the principal words or parts of speech, probably better than could 
be done by lessons specially directed to that object. It only 
remains now that the teacher bring the subject of classification 



230 LANGUAGE. 

directly before the children. This may be best done by leading 
them to analyze a few of their own lessons, arranging the words 
into names, words expressing actions, qualities, relations, &c. "When 
this has been done, the teacher may communicate the grammatical 
names of nouns, verbs, adjectives, as introductory to more me- 
thodical lessons on grammar. 

Such a course of teaching also prepares the mind for gram- 
matical analysis. 



READING. 



OTRODUCTOEY REMARKS. 

There is perhaps no subject of school study that has pre- 
sented more difficulties to the minds of the little learners, than 
Reading. This has been owing very much to the manner in 
which it has been usually presented. The English language is 
full of difficulties ; and if we introduce the child to them all at 
once, we shall most certainly confuse and discourage him. 

The principles of Pestalozzi so prominently insisted upon, that 
but one difficulty should be presented at a time — that the business 
of the teacher is analysis — that all difficulties should be divided 
and subdivided, until reduced to their simple elements — and that 
the work of the infant learner is synthetical, are peculiarly appli- 
cable in the prosecution of this subject. 

It has been our aim, in the following lessons, to treat the sub- 
ject in conformity to these principles. We claim for the plan 
here presented the following advantages : 

1. It puts the child in possession of a key by which he is able 
to help himself — a very important principle in education. 

2. It is an excellent disciplinary exercise, cultivating accuracy 
of observation and expression. 

3. It presents but one difficulty at a time, and thus avoids that 
confusion, and consequent discouragement, that so often attend the 
early efforts in learning to read. 

4. It is thorough. By means of a progressive arrangement 
and classification, it puts the child in possession of a knowledge 



232 READING. — FIRST STEP. 

of important elements in the English language that are often 
entirely neglected. 

5. The plan is calculated to cultivate clearness of articulation, 
and lead the children, by easy and progressive steps, to a knowl- 
edge of the orthography of words. 

"We believe it to be an easy, thorough, and rapid method of 
learning to read and spell. 

A set of cards and a little reading book have been prepared 
with special reference to accompanying these lessons, which we 
think the teacher will find of great assistance. 



PHONIC READING. 

FIRST STEP. 

While in this Step, the children learn to distinguish and imi- 
tate forms, and to distinguish and imitate sounds. To each charac- 
ter is attached but one sound. "We first begin by teaching the 
children to recognize the forms of the small letters, and their ap- 
propriate sounds. For this purpose we use both the large and 
small cards, and the blackboard. 

Hold before the class a small card with the small letter a on it. 
Ask one member of the class to select another like it from the 
table, calling upon the class to decide as to the correctness of the 
selection. Ask another to point to a form like it on the large 
card. Let other members of the class select other forms like it 
on the card and on the table. Teacher makes several letters on 
the board ; the children decide when she makes this letter. The 
teacher now tells the children that this is a, repeating the short 
sound of a.* Children repeat the sound several times, until they 
can all give it correctly. Different members of the class are called 
upon to select as many letters of- this kind from the table and card 
as they can find, always repeating the sound as they select them. 

* The short sounds of the vowels, as heard in hat, pen, pin, hot, hut, the 
hard sound of c and g, the sound of x as heard in wax, are used in every case 
in this Step ; and s has the sound of c soft, as heard in sent. The letter Tc is 
omitted. The names of the letters are not given to the children at present. 



READING. FIRST STEP. 233 

The letter t is nest presented, and treated in the same manner. 
The children are then shown card No. 5. Teacher points to the 
letter a on this card, and the children give the sound. Teacher re- 
peatedly points to these letters, and the children give the sounds, 
each time pronouncing them in more rapid succession, until they 
get the syllable "at," which they pronounce repeatedly. This is 
as much as can be accomplished with one lesson. 

Either at this point, or before giving the above lesson, which, 
perhaps would be the better course, let the children learn at sight 
to recognize the following words, as an aid in forming short, easy 
sentences, as we proceed : the, is, his, this. These words are 
found on both the large and small cards, and may be treated very 
much in the same way as in learning the letters a and t, selecting 
cards with the required word from the table and from the large 
card. In all these exercises, the class should be called upon in 
every case to decide upon the correctness of the selection, or work 
done by any member. 

In case the Reading Cards are not used, the work may be 
placed on the blackboard in these and the following exercises. 
The teacher who can print readily will be likely to interest her 
class more thoroughly by taking this course, than by confining 
herself closely to the cards. The cards, however, will be found a 
great aid to the teacher in indicating the exact course of the les- 
sons, and in supplying a collection of easy sentences adapted to 
the progress of each lesson. 

In the next lesson the children learn to recognize and sound 
the letters m and c [hard). These letters are treated in the same 
manner as a and t, combining them with the syllable at. Place 
this syllable upon the board, and let the children analyze and pro- 
nounce it. At a little distance from it, at the left, place the letter m, 
and let the children sound it as pointed to ; also pronounce the syl- 
lable at. Below, and a little nearer each other, place the same letter 
and syllable, and let the children sound them as pointed to, more 
rapidly than before ; and so proceed until they are brought into 
close proximity, and they pronounce the word mat. This may be 
repeated several times, and a little conversation may be had with 
the children about a mat ; as, How many ever saw a mat ? "Where 



234: READING. — FIEST STEP. 

they have seen it ? What it is used for ? &c. In all these early 
lessons with the children, the meaning of each new word should 
be made clear to them. Proceed in the same way with c, and so 
with all the succeeding lessons. 

Should there be any difficulty in getting the children to repeat 
the desired sound distinctly, the teacher may make use of the key 
word used in forming the combinations at the head of each lesson, 
pronouncing it very distinctly several times, making the children 
repeat it after her. Next pronounce the same word, emphasizing 
the desired sound, requiring the children to listen, to observe her 
lips, and then to imitate her. Next separate the sound from the 
remainder of the word, and pronounce the two parts distinctly, 
requiring the children to do the same. Thus they will be led to 
associate the power of the letter with the word, and may make 
use of it when they wish to recall it. 

It is well, when the power of a consonant has been learned as 
an initial letter, for the children to have a lesson upon the same 
letter when it is a terminal. The following will serve as a plan 
that may be continued in teaching the powers of all the conso- 
nants : 

The teacher makes the children repeat after her a word ending 
with a consonant, the power of which she wishes them to learn. 
Supposing it to be the power of m, the teacher repeats such a 
word as jam, emphasizing the letter m. Calls upon the children 
to listen, to observe her lips as she finishes the word, and to imi- 
tate her. In this way, if possible, lead them to discover for them- 
selves what the sound is that they hear at the end of the word ; 
and if they fail to give it correctly alone, repeat it for them, tell- 
ing them that it is the power of the letter m ; and when they wish 
to remember the sound, they may think of the word jam. 

By way of exercise, and an occasional review of what they 
have learned, the teacher points to or prints a letter, and the chil- 
dren give the sound ; or the teacher gives the sound of a letter, 
and the children either print, or point out the letter which has 
that sound. 

The letters may be taken up in the following order : a, t, m, 
c, b, r, h, v, f, s, d, I, p, g, n, j, w, e, i, o, x, u, y, q, and z ; and the 



BEADING. — FIRST STEP. 235 

combinations ow, oy, and th, may be added. For the full exem- 
plification of the methods of working out these lessons, as also for 
the practice in reading, see " Phonic Reading Cards." 

During the progress of these lessons, if the teacher finds the 
children have difficulty in distinguishing the letters b, p, q, and d, 
it will be well to give them a separate lesson on these letters.* 
The following may serve as a specimen of the way of treating 
them : 

1. Select these letters, and lead the children to observe and 
describe them as to resemblance and difference. They are alike, 
in that each is formed of one straight and one curved line. They 
are unlike in the position of these lines. The first is formed of 
two lines — one straight and vertical, and the other curved. The 
curved line lies to the right of the vertical line, and touches it at 
the middle and base. 

2. The second is formed of two lines, as the first, but the 
curved line touches the straight line at the top and middle on the 
right side. 

3. The third has the curve at the left of the straight line, and 
touches it at the top and middle. 

4. The fourth has the curve at the left of the straight line, 
and touches it at the middle and base. 

5. Exercise. — Let the children say how they know each let- 
ter from the other three. Bid them put the letters into two 
groups — those which have curves at the top, and those that have 
curves at the base. "What letters have curves at the top, and 
what at the base ? Let them divide again into those that have 
curves at the right, and those that have curves at the left. Which 
letters curve to the right, and which to the left ? &c. How p is 
distinguished from q, and d from b. 

After the children have learned to recognize all the small let- 
ters, and to attach to each its appropriate sound, they should be 
taught the capital letters, which they will be able to describe and 

* Before giving this lesson, the ideas of straight, curved, vertical, and base, 
should be developed with the children, for the method of which, see " Lessons 
on Form." The terms long and short, longer and shorter, upward and down- 
ward, right, left, upper, lower, and between, if not already familiar to the chil- 
dren, should be developed. 



236 # READING. — FIRST STEP. 

draw upon their slates. Before commencing these lessons, how- 
ever, it will be well to have the following 

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 

Alphabetical Forms of Capital Letters. 

I. — Comparison of Large with the Small Letters. — Let the chil- 
dren select from the capital letters all that resemble the small let- 
ters that they have already learned. This will dispose of C, K, 
0, P, S, U, V, W, X, Y, and Z. 

II. — Next take some letters not included in these, which, with 
reference to their simplicity in making and describing, may be pre- 
sented in the following order : 

1. 7", L, T, F, E, H, A, N, M, straight lined letters. 

2. Q, G, curved lined letters. 

3. D, B, R, J, straight and curved lined letters. 

4. Interest the children, by asking whether -they would not 
like to find out to what capitals the remaining small letters belong ? 

5. Select the capital L; place the small i beside it. Give the 
sound of short i, or let the children give the sound of the small i, 
and then tell them that the capital has the same sound, and let 
them repeat it, and describe the letter. 

6. Proceed in the same way with L, which the children dis- 
tinguish as being formed of a vertical and a horizontal line. Pro- 
ceed thus with T. 

1. — Sketch on the Letter E. — The following sketch may serve 
as a pattern of the way in which each of the capitals may be 
learned and described : 

Teacher places the capital E beside the small e, and calls upon 
the children to give the sound of small e. Tells them that the 
large letter has the same sound. Children repeat it. Calls upon 
the children to select E on the large card ; also from the table ; 
to find as many large E's as they can. The teacher now pro- 
vides the children with strips of wood or pasteboard, and says, 
" Make this letter." * The teacher asks, " How many lines in 

* A small box containing both curved and straight strips, for this purpose, 
can be obtained of the Publisher. 



READING. — FIRST STEP. 237 

your El " (remembering to use the short sound of E, and not the 
name). Point out the longest line. Tell the number and direc- 
tion of all the lines. Let us describe E: "It is formed of three 
straight lines ; the longest is a vertical line, and the two shorter 
are horizontal ; the two horizontal lines touch the vertical line at 
the top and base. It has also a little mark in the middle of the 
vertical line, on the right side." 

Description of the Letter D. — It is formed of two lines, one 
straight and vertical, and the other curved. The curved line lies 
to the right of the vertical line, and touches it at the top and bot- 
tom* 

III. — 1. Exercises. — Hold up the small letters, and let the 
children select the capitals that belong to them, and then reverse 
this. 

2. Let the children give the sounds of the large letters when 
pointed to, and point to them when sounded. 

Imitating Sounds of Letters. \ 

During the progress of the preceding exercises on the forms and 
sounds of the letters, the teacher may have a daily drill with the 
children in imitating the sounds of the letters, without any refer- 
ence to their forms, taking them in the following order (see Card 
No. 4). By varying the key on which these sounds are given, 
sometimes high, and again low, sometimes at a shouting pitch, and 
again in a whisper, the exercise may be made a very interesting 
and pleasing one. 

In the general classification of sounds, the terms vowel and con- 
sonant sounds are used. 



* For this purpose letters without ornament should be used. 

+ The teacher will observe, that in these exercises no reference is to be 
made to the forms of the letters, the children simply imitating the sounds as 
made by the teacher. 



238 HEADING. — FIRST STEP. 

I. — Vowel Sounds, or Tonic Elements. 
Sketch on Long Vowel Sounds. 

1. Pronounce E, A, A in air, A in far, and A in aw, 6, oo. 
Children repeat each sound in concert, and then call on individual 
children to give them. 

2. Proceed as before with be, bd, bare, far, fall, bo, boo. Chil- 
dren repeat as before. 

3. Lead the children to notice the position of the organs of 
speech in making these sounds. 

II. — Double Vowel Sounds. 

Sketch on Double Vowel Sounds. 

1. Pronounce i in pine, u in tube, oi, ou. Let the children 
repeat the sounds in concert, till they can say them in order, and 
then individual children called upon to go over them. 

2. Pronounce, and exercise the children in pronouncing, cy, 
dry, try, fly, sky ; boy, hoy, joy, cloy, Troy ; bow,, cow, now, plow ; 
new, dew, lieu, stew. 

III. — Short Vowel Sounds. 

1. Children sound these after the teacher, as before. The 
sounds may be made more audible by repetition, thus: It, it, it; 
et, et, et ; at, at, at ; ot, ot, ot ; ut, ut, ut, as in put ; ut, ut, ut, as 
in nut. 

2. Exercise the children on other words containing the same 
sounds. 

IV. — Consonant Sounds. 

1. Subtonic Elements. 

1. Pronounce mat, mat, mat, emphasizing m. Children re- 
peat, &c. So proceed with net, lamb, rat, ding. In the last word 
let the last sound ng be emphatic. Continue to exercise the chil- 



READING. — FIRST STEP. 239 

dren on these elements, as directed with the vowel sounds. Pro- 
ceed in the same manner with the remaining subtonic elements, 
b, d, g, j, v, w, z in zeal and z in azure, and th in thine. 

2. Atonic Elements. 

Sketch on the Aspirate h. — (a) Sound the long vowels first 
without and then with the aspirate ; as, c, a, a in air, a in far, and 
a in aw, 6, oo, he, ha, hair, hah, haw, ho, how. 

Lead the children to notice what they do in pronouncing the 
second line ; viz., breathe forcibly at the commencement of each 
word. 

(b) Exercise the children in the same way on the double 
vowel sounds ; as, i, u (sound as heard in tune), oi, ou, hi, hu, hoi, 
hou. In the same way, if necessary, proceed with the short vowel 
sounds. 

(c) Utter the vowel sounds, requiring them to give them aspi- 
rated ; then pronounce the vowel aspirated, requiring the children 
to drop the aspirate. 

Proceed with the remaining atonic elements as with the sub- 
tonic, viz. : p, t, k, fc'va. nice, tch in fetch, th in youth, ci in 
vicious. 

Pronounce such words as pull, tin, kill, fan, celery, &c, repeat- 
ing each word several times, making the first letter emphatic. 
Let the children repeat the words after the teacher, and then the 
sounds. Lead the children to discover the difference between the 
subtonic and the atonic elements, not using, however, these terms. 
They will discover that in making one, there is a tone, and in the 
other there is not. To lead them to this, sound them in connec- 
tion ; as, bale, b, pale, p. Repeat them one after the other. So 
take d and t, g and c hard, / and v, th in thin and th in thine, s in 
seal and z in zeal, ch in chest or tch in fetch, and j in jest, sh in shall, 
and z in azure. (These are sometimes classed as sharp and flat; 
the sharps being the atonic elements, as p, f t, &c, and the flats 
being the subtonic elements, as, b, v, d, &c.) 

Give them these sounds, both subtonic and atonic, indiscrimi- 
nately, and let the children classify them as those having a tone, 
and those having no tone. 



240 READING. SECOND STEP. 

Let the children give sounds of the class called for, as " those 
having a tone," and " those having no tone." 

V. — Exercises on the Subtonic and Atonic Elements, with 

REFERENCE TO THE ORGANS OF SPEECH. 

When the children can perfectly imitate the sounds, direct 
attention to the organs of speech used in forming them. Let the 
children discover which are formed by the lips almost entirely ; 
which by the tongue with or near the teeth ; which by the palate 
and throat. 

VI. — Order of Sounds. 

Any word which contains a certain sound chosen by the 
teacher, to be distinctly pronounced by her. Children to decide 
whether the sound comes first, middle, or last. 

VII. — Rhymes. 

1. Exercise the children in repeating lists of words or sylla- 
bles that rhyme, after the teacher ; as. 

Long vowels : me, be, te, ive, he, &c. ; ha, ma, ra, sa, pa, &c. ; 
lone, cone, tone, known, &c. 

List of rhymes containing double vowels ; as, fine, tune, coy, 
&c. Also short vowels, as, lip, nop, &c, should be repeated 
slowly, loudly, softly, &c, according to direction. 



SECOND STEP. 

In this Step the children will be introduced — 

1. To words containing the long sounds of the vowels, to- 
gether with a few words which are to be learned at sight, contain- 
ing different sounds of the vowels ; to words containing silent let- 
ters ; also the sound of k, and the two sounds of c and s. 

2. To words formed with more than one consonant initial or 
terminal. 

3. In this Step, also, the teacher will see that the children 
learn the names of the letters. 



READING. — SECOND STEP. 241 

In writing out this Step, the teacher must at first he prepared 
to furnish most of the examples ; but soon, and often surprisingly 
soon, the children will relieve her. 

At first the children will perhaps be inclined to give non-sig- 
nificant words ; but they must be encouraged to give significant 
words. 

Accompanying the Eeading Cards is a little book, which may 
in this Step be put into the hands of the children. 

Over these lessons, both on the cards and in the books, printed 
in different type, are words containing different sounds of the 
vowels, and other combinations than those to which their atten- 
tion has been called, which may be taught in the same way as the 
words at the beginning of the First Step. To aid in this, both 
large and small cards have been prepared, containing these words. 
Before the children are introduced to a new lesson, they should be 
made familiar with these words, so that they can readily pronounce 
them at sight. These may be treated in the same way as the 
words at the commencement of the First Step. 

PLAN TO BE USED IN READING FROM BOOKS. 

First Lesson. — Object to secure Fluency and Accuracy. 

I. — "Word by word. 

1. The teacher first pronounces a word, the children the next, 
and so on. Then reverse the order. 

2. Any words that have any peculiarity in spelling selected, 
and put upon the board ; sounds distinguished ; silent letters no- 
ticed. 

II. — Clause by clause. 

1. Read each clause, as word by word. 

2. Attention paid to pronunciation. 

III. — Simultaneous reading. 

1. Word by word. 

2. Clause by clause. 

3. Sentence by sentence. 

IV. — Individual children selected to read the paragraph. The 
11 



242 READING. SECOND STEP. 

teacher should select the poorest reader, except sometimes when 
she takes the best as an example to the class. 

Second Lesson. — Object to secure Intelligent Heading. 

I. — 1. Teacher and children read, as before, sentence by sen- 
tence. 

2. Children questioned on the meaning of difficult words; the 
board used. 

II. — When two or three paragraphs have been read, the sub- 
stance of each is drawn from the children, and an abstract put 
upon the board. 

III. — General questions. Object of the lesson ; moral, if any. 
"What they have gained from the lesson ? &c, &c. 

SILENT LETTERS. 

At this point in the Step we may call the attention of the chil- 
dren to the fact that some words have letters that are not sounded. 
At present, however, these words are not presented systematically 
in classes, but the attention of the children is called to the fact of 
these silent letters, and a few miscellaneous examples given, such 
as will occur, or have already occurred in their reading lessons. 

The following will answer as a sketch, to show the way in 
which these may be treated, both at this point and in the latter 
part of the Step, when they are more fully discussed. 

1. Write on the board, well, ill, bill, Jill, will, dell, mill, have, 
copse, live, cock, lock, dock, Dick, stick, trick, lick, mess, dress, press, 
less, &c. 

2. Let the children sound separately every letter in bill ; then 
give the number of sounds, and point out the letter to which no 
sound is attached. Give the term silent. Proceed thus with at 
least one of each of the class put on the board. Let the children 
cross out, but not rub out, the silent letters in each. 

3. Exercise the children in other words containing silent let- 
ters as they occur in their reading lessons, observing this sugges- 
tion, however, to have these exercises previous to reading the les- 



READING. — SECOND STEP. 243 

son. Many examples of this kind will occur after they are intro- 
duced to words containing the 

LONG VOWEL SOUNDS. 

The following sketches will illustrate the method of treating 
these sounds : 

1. Write mad upon the board. Children analyze it, and give 
the vowel sound. To the right of it write made, and treat it in 
the same way. 

2. Develop the idea of short and long, by reference to the time 
it takes to pronounce mad and made. Get examples of each 
sound. 

3. Give examples, and let the children distinguish the vowel 
sounds, and decide which are long, and which are short. 

4. E, I, 0, and W, may be treated in a similar way. 

K, the Hard and Soft Sounds of C, and the Two Sounds of S. 

1. Place the letter k upon the board. Give the sound, and 
ask the children whether they have ever heard this sound before ? 
Ask them to select a letter which has this sound. If they fail to 
find it from the card, place several letters on the board, and among 
them the letter c, and ask them to select the letter that has this 
sound. Now place upon the board, in opposite or parallel col- 
umns, lists of words having k, and the hard sound of c ; as, 
cat can cup 

kill kind kid, &c. 

Let them pronounce the two lists, and give the sounds in each. 
Give a further list of words having the letter k, and let the chil- 
dren give the sounds ; such as, hark, bark, bank, sank, kind, &c. 

2. Hard and Soft Sounds of C. 

Sketch. — Develop the idea by comparing such words as cat, 
cut, copse, cold, can, with cedar, cell, cinder, cider. Give the terms 
hard and soft. The children see that the hard sound is like k, and 
the soft is like 5. 



244 HEADING. SECOND STEP. 

3. Let the class, in training, give a sketch of the two sounds 
of s, as of c hard and soft, as it may be treated in the same gen- 
eral way. 

It would be well, at this point, to have some exercises with 
the children on the card, on which are arranged words such as 
actually occur in their reading lessons, having the long and short 
sounds of the vowels, silent letters, the hard sound of c as ex- 
pressed by c and k, the soft sound of c, and s subtonic and atonic ; 
the children analyzing the words, indicating the silent letters, the 
different sounds of c and s by the terms suggested. 

In the following lessons the teacher may make use of the 
names of the letters in speaking of the various consonants. This 
will probably be sufficient to familiarize the children with their 
names. If the teacher, however, should find this not effective, 
methods similar to those used in teaching the words at the heads 
of the reading lessons may be adopted. 

DOUBLE INITIAL CONSONANTS. 

As an illustration of the method of treating these lessons, we 
subjoin a report of a lesson actually given : 

Bl Initial. 

1.. The teacher wrote these letters on the board, and exercised 
the children in sounding them. 

2. The teacher desired the children to find words beginning 
with bl. As they hesitated, she wrote on the board, blot, bless, 
black. 

3. Children gave other examples, viz. : bland, blank, blind, 
blink, blab, bladder, blose, blister, block, blanket, bloss, blood, blote, 
blick. 

4. The children not being able to think of any more words 
with these combinations, the teacher rubbed out all those that had 
no meaning. She also rubbed out other words which she had not 
time to explain, leaving about ten words on the board. 

5. She required the children to give the meaning of these, 



READING. SECOND STEP. 245 

supplying the meaning of those they did not know. In the after- 
noon, the children copied this list of words on their own slates. 



Sketch on the Initials Sc. 

1. Sc written on the board. Children name and sound it. 

2. Exercised in finding words with this commencement ; as, 
scan, scot, scum, scatter, &c. They will probably give words with 
other than short and long vowels ; as, scar, scald, &c. These should 
be added to the list ; but should they give words having the sound 
of sc, but spelled differently, as skip, skin, the teacher should put 
them in another column, and direct their attention to the difference 
in spelling. Children questioned on the meaning as before. 

3. Children print on their own slates all the words they can 
remember beginning with sc ; also with sk. 

Sketch on Ld and Lt. 

The teacher writes told on the board, and directs the attention 
of the children to the last two sounds. Children exercised as 
before, and list made out ; as, 

Id — held, gild, weld, hold, told, scold. 
It— hilt, gilt, melt, felt, salt. 

Should the children give such words as heaVd, seaVd, smiVd, 
these should be written in another column, and the children led to 
notice the apostrophe, and shown that such words are usually 
spelled with e, and thus end with ed. If we leave out the e, we 
must put the little mark in its place. 

The above sketches will answer as models after which future 
lessons in this Step may be given. 

The teacher will observe that in all the following exercises 
only a few words are given under each head as examples. The 
children will, of course, produce many more words of each class. 

Subject-matter of lessons to be given in this Step : 



246 



READING. — SECOND STEP. 



I. — Terminal Diphthongs. 



aw 


ow 


ew 


ay 


oy 


caw 


bow 


few 


day 


boy 


raw 


cow 


mew 


may 


coy 


taw 


vow 


new 


P a y 


j°y 


paw 


now 


dew 


hay 


toy 



II. — 1. Two Initial Consonants. 



bl 


hr 


cl 




cr 


dr 


block 


brick 


clod 




crab 


drag 


bliss 


brink 


clinch 




crib 


drip 


black 


bran 


cliff 




crock 


drop 


dw 
dwell 
dwindle 
dwarf 


fl 

flock 
flint 
flag 


fr 
frog 
frock 
frisk 




pi 
plug 
plum 
plant 


pr 
prop 
press 
print 


sc 


sk 


si 




sm 


sn 


scum 
scant 


skim 
skull 


slip 
slop 




smell 
smack 


snap 
snag 


scud 


skip 


sled 




smut 


snug 


sp 
spill 
split 
spent 


st 
stand 
step 
stick 


sio 
swing 
swell 
swam 


tr 
tramj 
trip 
trot 


tw 
> twang 
twill 
twist 


qu 
quit 
quill 
quilt 



2. Two Terminal Consonants. 



lb 


Id 


nd 


ff 


V 


ck 


elb 


gild 


wind 


cliff 


pelf 


brick 


bulb 


weld 


band 


puff 


self 


crick 




sold 


rend 


scoff 


gulf 


track 


Ik 


nk 


sk 


11 


Im 


sm 


elk 


ink 


task 


drill 


elm 


prism 


silk 


think 


frisk 


dill 


helm 


chasm 


sulk 


sink 


mask 


till 


realm 


ism 





READING.— 


-SECOND ! 


STEP. 


24 


Ip 

help 
yelp 
pulp 


mp 
cramp 

stamp 
romp 


sp 
lisp 
wisp 
crisp 


ct 

act 
fact 
sect 


st 
most 
post 
rust 


ft 

draft 
drift 
loft 




It 


nt 


st 


ss 






hilt 


went 


west 


fuss 






melt 


sent 


rest 


muss 






felt 


bent 


« best 


loss 





Note. — The words are still to be spelled by sound, but as the 
children become familiar with the names of the letters, they may 
be spelled by names of the letters also. 

III. — 1. Three Initial Consonants. 



scr 

scrap 
screw 
scratch 


spr 

spring 

spry 

spread 




str 
string 
strong 
strung 


spl 

split 

splint 

splash 


squ 

squib 

squint 

squills 




2. Miscellaneous Terminals. 






ar 
star 
far 


or 
for 
nor 


ur 
fur 
bur 




arl 

snarl 
marl 




oil 
broil 
toil 


url 

curl 

furl 


arm 
farm 
warm 


orm 
worm 
storm 


ume 
fume 
exhume 


am 
cram 
' ham 




own 
crown 
drown 


one 
tone 
lone 


urn 
turn 
burn 


rb 
herb 
curb 


rd 
hard 
card 




rf 

serf 
turf 




rk 
lurk 
bark 


rl 
girl 
pearl 


rp 

harp 
carp 


rt 

part 
cart 


ng 

song 
wrong 


iy 

% 
ply 




sion 
mission 
session 


Hon 
motion, 
notion 



IV. — Recapitulation of Initials. 

sc, scr, sk, bl, cl, fl, gl, pi, si, spl, sm, sn, sp, cr, scr, dr, fr, gr, 
pr, spr, str, tr, st, qu, squ, dw, tw, sw, wh. 



248 



KEADING. SECOND STEP. 



V. — Recapitulation of Terminals. 

ck, ct, ff, ft, lb, Id, If, Ik, 11, lm, lp, It, mp, nd, ng, nk, nt, rb, rd, 
rf, rk, rl, rm, m, rp, rt, sk, sm, sp, ss, st, lj, sion, tion, ar, or, ur, 
oil, ume, am, one. 

In conclusion, give a few lessons on the same combinations 
used both as initial and terminal ; as, sk, sm, sp, st, &c. 

Let the children give any words containing one or more of 
these combinations. Place them on the board, and let the chil- 
dren classify them. 



INITIAL. 

skip 
skin 
skate 
sketch 



TERMINAL. 

ask 
musk 
risk, 
task, &c. 



Silent Characters. 

The following lists of words containing silent letters may be 
treated as per sketch given on page 242, illustrating a method of 
teaching words having silent letters : 



1. Initial Silent Consonants. 



g 


h 


k 


P 


w 


w 


gnat 


herb 


knife 


psalm 


whole 


wrong 


gnaw 


heir 


knob 


ptarmigan 


who 


write 


gnash 


hour 


knot 


psalter 


whoop 


wring 




2. 


Central Silent Consonants. 




b 


c 


c 


d 


d 


9 


debt 


fickle 


victuals 


pledge 


handsome 


sign 


doubt 


scent 


indict 


lodge 


handkerchief 


reign 


subtle 


• muscle 


pickaxe 


judge 


"Wednesday 


deign 


h 


h 


h 


h 


gh 


I 


ghost 


rhomb 


Thames 


scheme 


light 


talk 


ghast 


rhubarb 


Thomas 


school 


height 


stalk 


ghaut 


rhyme 


asthma 


schooner naughty 


folk 



KEADING. SECOND STEP. 



249 



I p t t 

calm tempt castle pitch 

palm receipt often hitch 

balm symptom chestnut match 



10 s 

answer isle 

sword aisle 

toward viscount 



3. Terminal Silent Consonants. 



b 


k 


gh 


h 


lamb 


wick 


plough 


Sarah 


comb 


dock 


though 


verandah 


plumb 


lock 


sigh 


burgh 



4. Central Silent Voweb. 



e 


% 


u 


open 
listen 
risen 


marriage 

carriage 

tarried 


build 

gauge 

guilt 



5. Terminal Silent E. 



ce 


hie 


cle 


die 


fie 


nice 


able 


uncle 


handle 


baffle 


rice 


fable 


treacle 


saddle 


snuffle 


peace 


warble 


circle 


riddle 


ruffle 


•gle 


■ Me 


pie 


tie 


te 


eagle 


freckle 


ripple 


tattle 


etiquette 


wriggle 


sprinkle 


cripple 


rattle 


brunette 


struggle 


tickle 


supple 


battle 


coquette 



6. Terminal Silent ue. 



ue 
league 
plague 
tongue 



ue 

grotesque 

opaque 

picturesque 



IV 



250 BEADING. THIRD STEP. 

THIRD STEP. 

Ambiguities. 

The children, while in this Step, learn to distinguish the con- 
sonants, subtonic and atonic, and to consider the various and 
anomalous sounds of vowels and diphthongs ; also g hard and 
soft. 

At this Step children may be introduced to reading books, 
such as are ordinarily used in schools of this grade, having no 
reference to a classification of sounds. 

Consonants. 
We have already considered the different sounds of c and s. 
The remaining consonants to be considered are g, th, ph, gh, ch, z, 
and x. 

1. G ; also Th, Hard and Soft. — Treat this in the same way 
as c hard and soft, giving lists of words ; as, 

Hard: Gilbert getting unguent 

Soft: gipsy George pungent, &c. 

Hard: thin think truth 

Soft: thou thine thus, &c. 

2. Ph. Sketch. — "Words containing this combination written 
and sounded. 

Children recognize the sound as expressed by /. "Words are 
given, which the children classify ; as, 

physic sphere tough 

phonic camphor triumph 

photograph orphan seraph 

» As a second lesson, the children may be employed in finding 
proper names containing this sound. Names spelled with / 
should be put in a separate column. 

INITIAL. CENTRAL. TERMINAL. 

Phebe Humphrey Joseph 

Philip Alphonso Ralph 

Phillis Sophia Adolph 

Phipps Euphemia Guelph 



READING. THIRD STEP. 251 

3. Gh. — Proceed in a similar way with words having this 
combination ; as, cough, laugh. Compare these with words hav- 
ing gh silent, as, plough, bough, &c. 

4. Sounds of Ch. — Children give words containing the sound 
of ch called for by the teacher, which will stand on the board thus : 

English. French. Hard. English Ch Classified. 

child chaise Christmas initial, terminal. 

china chivalry chord child watch 

church chandelier chaldron chip match 

French Ch Classified. Ch Hard Classified. 

INITIAL. TERMINAL. INITIAL. CENTRAL. 

chagrin blanche character ache 

chamois barouche chasm echo 

champagne mustache chaos scholar 

5. Z. — In teaching the sound of this letter, proceed as in 
teaching the sound of k, with this exception, that the children 
will now select their own words as examples. If they hesitate in 
doing this, it is only necessary to get from them a variety of words 
containing this sound, some of which will be likely to contain the 
desired examples, which may be arranged in columns, and com- 
pared ; as, 

is his arise risen 

zeal zinc zounds zany 

Let the children add as many words as they can in which s has 
the sound of z. 

It will be well also to compare such words as 

azure glazier 

assure sugar 

They will discover that both z and s have here different sounds 
than in the former list. Let them decide which has a tone, and 
which has not. They will give many examples in which this 
sound is represented by s ; as, osier, crosier, treasure, usual, vision, 
&c. Observe, in fact, that it is more frequently represented by s 
than z. Practice them in interchanging these elements, pronounc- 
ing azure as asure {ashure), sure as zure, &c. 



252 READING. THIRD STEP. 

I. — Sketch on the Letter X. 

1. Various examples of words containing x given. Children 
examine these, and discover that x has the sound of ks. 

2. Teacher gives other examples ; as, anxious, complexion, 
luxury. Children discover that the sound here is ksk. Classify, 
putting in separate columns the words having these two sounds ; 

as, 

ks ksh 
mixture luxury- 
exhaust fluxions 

It may be well, at this point, to review some exercises that 
have been slightly passed over. 

II.— Sketch on D as T. 

1. Let the children sound d repeatedly. Ask them, with the 
organs in position for sounding d, to utter it without a tone. 
They will discover that it is the sound of t. Let them give ex- 
amples of both, and classify them ; as, 

INITIAL. CENTRAL. TERMINAL. 

din tin udder utter nod not 

den ten madder matter shod shot 

dinner tinner ladder latter trod trot 

The teacher may use the terms suhtonic and atonic ; or, if pre- 
ferred, sharp and flat. 

2. In the same manner take b and p, g and k, v and f, th in 
thine and th in thin, z in zeal and s in seal, j in jest and ch in 
chest, z in azure and sh in shall, g in go and k in kid. 

The subtonics are d, b, g, v, th in thine, z in zeal, z in azure, g 
in go. 

The atonies are t, p, k, f, th in thin, s in seal, ch in chest, sh, 
and k. 

III. — 1. In reviewing c hard and soft, introduce examples of 
c before e, i, and y. 

2. Soft sound of g, as expressed by j in jelly, just, Joseph. In 
seeking for examples of this sound, the children may possibly give 



READING.— THIRD STEP. 253 

such words as obedient, individual, obdurate. There is a tendency 
in such words to pronounce d as j. This should be guarded 
against. 

IV.— Sketch on Ch. 

The children may be employed in making a list of Scripture 
names containing ch, and in learning how to pronouce them. Ch 
is hard in all except Rachel and cherubim. In seeking for exam- 
ples containing English ch, they may give such words as creature, 
and will require a lesson on the sounds of t before u. Let them 
make a list ; as, scripture, culture, lecture, fortune, virtue, rapture. 
A double list may also be made out ; as, 

fracture tincture rupture 

child cheese church 

The children will discover that these sounds, represented by tu and 
ch, somewhat resemble each other, but that the sound represented 
by tu, properly spoken, is not quite like ch. 

V.—S, C, and Z. 

Lessons might be given on all the sounds expressed by s, c, 
and z. 

The sound of s, in sure, is expressed by s, ss, sh, ce, ci, cy, 
and ti. 

Direct attention to the common change of s atonic to the sub- 
tonic, in pronouncing plurals ; as, 

birds, pronounced birdz. 
days, " dayz. 

dogs, " dogz, &c. 

ANOMALIES. FIRST DIVISION. 

One Sign representing Various Sounds. 
1. Sounds represented by the letter a : 

Short. Long. Broad. Italian. fcJ$ e ^ Short o. Short e. 

bag baby fall far fare watch any 

nap cape warm father pair warrant many 
parrot natal walk calm care wallow Thames 



254 



READING. — THIRD STEP. 



In the above, and in succeeding exercises, the title at the head 
of the column is put upon the board, the sound given by the 
teacher, and, if necessary, an example added, and the children dic- 
tate the words. For lists of classified words, see " Worcester's 
Spelling Book." 

2. Sounds expressed by the letter e : 



Short. 


Long. 


Long a before r. 


Short i. 


Short Obtuse u. 


met 


mete 


there 


England 


her 


men 


complete 


where 


English 


fern 


ferry 


secrete 


ere 




term 



Show that sounds in the first and third columns are identical 
with the sounds in the seventh and fifth, under a. 



Short. 
dock 
stock 
lock 



Sounds expressed by the letter o : 

Long. Broad. Long and Close. 

note storm move 

close horn lose 



rose 



adorn 



prove 



Short u. 
glove 
color 
sponge 



4. Sounds expressed by the character u : 



Short. 


Long. 


tuck 


tune 


run 


mute 


sun 


pure 



Middle or 
Obtuse. 

pull 

full 

push 



Short and 
Obtuse. 

fur 

turn 
hurt 



Short e. Sound of w. 



bury 
busy 



queen 

languid 

lingual 



Lead the children to see that the u in tune is really a com- 
pound sound. That the sound in bury is really the sound of short 
e expressed by u. Lastly, that u has the sound of w after q and 
after g, when sounded at all. (It is often silent, as guest.) 

5. Sounds expressed by the letter i : 



Short. 


Long. 


Long e. Long and Obtuse i. 


kin 


mite 


marine bird 


nit 


write 


machine fir 


sit 


fire 


fatigue stir 



Lead the children to see that i in mite is a compound sound, 



BEADING. THIKD STEP. 



255 



or diphthong; that i in marine is identical with e in mete; and 
that i in bird is like u in Turk and purse. 



6. Sounds expressed by y 
Short i. Long i. 



mystery 

sylvan 

symbol 



tyrant 

style 

type 



Consonantal 
Sound. 

yet 

year 

your 



Short and 
Obtuse u. 

myrrh 

myrmidon 

myrtle 



7. Sounds expressed by ou : 

Proper. Long o. Broad a. Long & Close o. Short u. 

flour soul wrought group country 

hour mould brought soup cousin 

sound shoulder bought through touch 



Short and 
Obtuse u. 
scourge 
courteous 
courtesy 



SECOND DIVISION. 

Single Sounds represented by Various Signs. 

1. The long sound of a is expressed by a, and by 

ai ay ea ei ey au 

slain stay break eight they g au ge 

pain play steak skein obey 

rain day great weigh prey 

2. The Italian sound of a is expressed by a, and by 

al ea au 

calm heart haunt 

balm hearth daunt 

psalm hearken taunt 

3. The broad sound of a is expressed by a, and by 



ao 

gaol 



aw au o ou oa 
fawn daub snort fought broad 
straw haul north brought groat 
raw vault lord thought 


or 
lord 
horn 
storm 


4. The long sound of a before r is expressed by a, 


and by 


ai ea ay e 
air bear prayer ere 
chair pear there 
fair wear where 


ei 
heir 
their 



256 READING. THIRD STEP. 

5. The long sound of e is expressed by e, and by 

ee ea ei eo ey ay i ie 

feet reap receive people key quay machine grief 

queen heap perceive police piece 

green neat conceive marine priest 

6. The short sound of e is expressed by e, and by 

ai ay ea ei eo ie u tie 

again says leather heifer leopard friend bury guest 

against feather jeopardy guess 

said endeavor feoff quench 

7. The long sound of * is expressed by i, and by 

ie ei ye uioxuy y ai eye 

die height lye buy style aisle eye 

he sleight eye guy my 

pie dye disguise deny 

8. The short sound of * is expressed by i, and by 

e y ey o u ui 

England sympathy money women busy biscuit 

English symptom journey lettuce circuit 

paroxysm coney minute guitar 

9. The short sound of o is expressed by o, and by 





a 

wast 
wash 
watch 


ow 
knowledge 


10. The long sound of o is es 


pressed by o, and by 


00 

door 
floor 
brooch 


oa oe 
coal foe 
board hoe 
loaf toe 


ou ow 
four own 
pour flow 
soul sow 


ew 
sew 
shew 
strew 


eau 
beau 
bureau 
plateau 


au eo 
hautboy yeoman- 
hauteur 
hautgout 



BEADING. THIKD STEP. 257 

11. The long sound of u is expressed by u, and by 

ue ui ew eu ieu iew eoM ewe 

blue suits blew feudal adieu view beauty ewe 

glue juice mew neutral lieu 

sue sluice Jew feud purlieu 

12. The short sound of u is expressed by u, and by 

o ou oo oe 

come rough blood does 

done touch flood 

dove young 

13. The middle or obtuse sound of u is expressed by u, and by 

oo ou o 

book could wolf 

good should woman 

took would bosom 

14. The short and obtuse sound of u is expressed by u, and by 

e i ea o ou y 

her girl dearth word adjourn myrrh 

defer twirl hearse worm* scourge myrtle 

prefer mirth yearn worth journey myrmidon 

15. The sound of ou is represented also by ow, as howl, vow, 
allow. 

16. The diphthong oi is otherwise represented by oy, as boy, 
coy, toy. 

hw is represented by wh ; as, when, whip, whim, &c. 



DICTATION. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

Important as it is that every one attempting to write in Eng- 
lish should be able to spell correctly, it is but too manifest that 
the painful exercises to which children in former years were sub- 
jected failed to give them the power of doing this. The learning 
by heart of column after column of spelling lessons, in which many 
words not in common use would constantly occur, as well as many 
others in which the combination of letters is quite arbitrary, exer- 
cising only memory, has proved, to a great extent, a wearisome 
waste of time. This plan of instruction is now happily superseded 
by dictation lessons, which, when rightly given, call out close ob- 
servation, and thus tend to fix the correct spelling of words in the 
mind. 

FIRST STEP. 

Object. — At this step dictation may be considered an exercise 
in writing. The children first learn how to print letters which are 
simple in form, as i, t, n, and to join them together, so as to make 
words of two letters. 

Plan. — 1. The teacher to print a letter — the letter L, for in- 
stance — on the board, the children being required to observe care- 
fully how it is done, to say what kind of lines are made, and also 
their direction, a simple definition being sufficient. The children 
to observe, further, where the teacher begins the formation of the 
letter, and where the formation of it ends. The teacher then 



DICTATION. SECOND STEP. 259 

makes a second letter, 0, and joins it to the first, directing the 
children's attention also to the mode of its formation. The chil- 
dren to say what word is made. 

2. The teacher to print the same word very slowly two or 
three times over ; to require the children to observe closely, and 
to imitate the act by moving a finger as if writing in the air. 

3. The teacher to require two or three children to print the 
same word on the board, to compare the word they have printed 
with the copy, and to say in what they are alike, and in what they 
differ, and how they could be improved. 

4. The children may then print the same word three or four 
times over on their own slates, the teacher seeing that the copy is 
constantly referred to, and also carefully and frequently examining 
the slate. As improvement in writing mainly depends upon the 
children attentively observing the copy, and comparing their own 
work with it, the teacher should occasionally print on the board 
an imitation of one of the children's productions — either a very 
good or a very bad one ; the rest of the children to say in what 
the letters are rightly or wrongly formed ; then to look at their 
own slates, and see to which their own copy bears most resem- 
blance. 

SECOND STEP. 

Object. — There are three points in which this Step is in ad- 
vance upon the First Step : 1. The children are led to observe the 
proportion between the different parts of letters ; and 2. The po- 
sition of the words printed on the slate. 3. They are taught to 
hold the pencil properly. 

Plan. — The teacher gives a word, the children spell it ; then 
this word is printed on the board, as in the First Step. The chil- 
dren are then led to observe the relative position of the letters, 
their size, and the proportion of their parts. They are directed to 
begin to print the words at the top of the left-hand corner of their 
slates, and to continue them successively in a straight line toward 
the right. They are usually led to print such words as occur on 
the boards from which they read. After the children have printed 



260 DICTATION. FOURTH STEP. 

two or three words, and these have heen carefully examined, these 
words, as well as those from which they were copied, are rubbed 
out, and they are required to print the same words from dictation. 
They are then instructed in the proper mode of holding a pencil, 
practising this before they commence writing. 



THIRD STEP. 

Object. — To teach the children to substitute written for printed 
characters. The daily practice of the' children in reading the sum- - 
maries of lessons written on the board, during their object lesson, 
will assist in preparing them to pass from printed to written charac- 
ters. The latter are introduced at this Step, together with the use 
of the comma and period. 

Plan. — 1. The two different alphabets are written on the 
blackboard, and the children exercised in writing the two forms 
of the same letter on their slates. The teacher next gives out the 
first word of a sentence, the children spell it, and one of them 
writes it on the board, being directed to begin with a capital let- 
ter ; the rest examine the word, saying whether the letters are of 
the proper height and inclination ; any points not noticed by the 
children to be taken up by the teacher. All the words in the sen- 
tence are in succession similarly dealt with. 

2. The teacher supplies the stops, and directs the children's 
attention to their use and their position. The children are re- 
quired to look at the sentence carefully for two or three minutes, 
and to notice the spelling of each word. 

3. The whole is then rubbed out, and the children write the 
sentence on their own slates, at the dictation of the teacher. The 
slates are constantly and carefully examined by the teacher, and 
faults or excellences pointed out. 



FOUETH STEP. 

Object. — To lead the children to a more close observation of 
the spelling of words, especially that of some of the peculiar words 



DICTATION. FOURTH STEP. 261 

of our language. They are also exercised in the use of capital 
letters, and of the notes of interrogation and exclamation, and 
taught the rules which regulate the use of all these. Any dicta- 
tion spelling book may he used as a text hook. 

Plan. — This is exemplified in the following suggestions : 

1. Words are given, similar in sound, but differing in spelling 
and signification ; as, for example, all, awl ; piece, peace, &c. 

2. "Words similarly spelt, but differently pronounced or ap- 
plied ; such as, close — shut fast ; close — to join, to shut ; conduct — 
behavior ; conduct — to lead, to manage, &c, treated in the same 
way as the former class of words. 

3. Words spelt and pronounced alike, but differing in signifi- 
cation ; as, hail — drops of rain frozen while falling ; hail — to call 
out. 

4. The children learn the distinction between vowels and con- 
sonants, and are made acquainted with a few simple rules of spell- 
ing ; as, for example, under what circumstances a consonant is 
doubled, as in beg, begging, run, running, &c. ; when one I is to 
be omitted, as in almost, made up of all and most ; skilful, made 
up of skill and full. During these lessons, the capital letters and 
different stops are used. 

The following plan may be adopted when the lesson is on 
words similar in sound, but differing in spelling and signification : 

1. Suppose the words to be see and sea. The teacher writes 
see upon the board, directs the children's attention to the spelling 
and meaning (the latter to be written opposite the word) ; and the 
teacher asks whether they have heard a word of the same sound 
used in any other sense ? If not, to tell them that a portion of 
the ocean is called sea. This word, sea, to be then written under 
the other, the children to compare the two, to say in what they 
are alike and in what they differ, and to give the meaning of 
each : 

See — to look. 

Sea — part of the ocean. 

2. The teacher to dictate the sentence, " I can see the sea ;" 
to require a child to write it upon the board ; the rest of the chil- 



262 DICTATION. — FOURTH STEP. 

dren to examine the sentence, and especially the spelling of the 
two words, see and sea, and to say whether each is spelt correctly ; 
why, in that particular sentence, the last word is spelt sea, and 
not see. 

3. The teacher to dictate two or three sentences containing 
both these words ; the children to write them on their own slates. 
After each sentence is written, all the slates to be examined by 
the teacher. If the teacher meets with a sentence in which the 
two words are not spelt correctly, to copy it on the board, and 
submit it to the inspection of the class. When they have decided 
where and what the error is, they are to examine what they have 
written on their own slates, and, comparing it with that on the 
board, make the necessary corrections. 



ELEMENTARY LESSONS, PREPARATORY 
TO GEOGRAPHY. 

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

The elementary principles of geography are those which relate 
to position or place, including both the relative position of places 
with respect to each other, and also their position as determined 
by the points of the compass. Under this head may also be 
arranged the idea of distance, as leading to the necessity of a 
standard of measurement by which such distance may be esti- 
mated and described. 

The second principle is that of form, which introduces the con- 
sideration of the outline or boundaries of countries. 

The third is that of physical geography, which affords most 
interesting materials for instruction ; for by the help of models, 
and by observation on the physical features of their own imme- 
diate neighborhood, even very young children may be led to ap- 
preciate the grander and more developed features of other coun- 
tries. The study of topographical geography should commence 
with the accurate observation of the locality in which the instruc- 
tion is given, thus carrying out the Pestalozzian principle of pro- 
ceeding from the known to the unknown. The following remarks 
by Mr. Moseley, one of the inspectors of Government Schools in 
England, are so very valuable, and so much in harmony with the 
principles upon which all Pestalozzian instruction is based, that it 
is thought well to repeat them here : 

" In proposing that a course of instruction, addressed to an 
elementary school in geography, should commence with the to- 
pography of the school district ; that, aiming at the description of 



264 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 

nature under remote and inaccessible forms, it should begin with 
the description of those under which it is familiar, and which are 
at hand ; that, in speaking of the social and political relations of 
distant regions, it should begin bj instructing the child in those of 
its own, I take into my view the eminently educative character of 
this course, and that natural process of the development of the 
^faculties of the child which is implied in it. In the first place, 
that faculty of observation will have been practised which admits 
of so vast an enlargement of its sphere of operation by habit. 
The child will first have been led to observe the directions of lanes 
and footpaths, the irregular figures traced out by the boundaries 
of fields and farms, the varieties of surface level, the lines of direc- 
tion of elevated grounds, and valleys, and streams, the plants and 
trees, the crops of the neighboring lands, the mines and manufac- 
tories ; and the questions addressed to him at school on these mat- 
ters will have led him to observe these with precision and accu- 
racy ; for above all, and as a necessary condition to every other 
valuable result, his attention will have been gained, because it is 
directed to matters which he can understand, and which interest 
him. Next, his faculty of memory will have been constantly ex- 
ercised under that form in which it ministers most readily to the 
uses of life, *. e., concerning things rather than words. Then his 
imagination will have been educated and directed, in its operation, 
to legitimate objects. To abstract — to separate the idea from the 
object on which it has formed itself; to enlarge and to generalize 
that idea ; to compare it with others, and to combine ideas under 
new forms, giving order and proportion, and beauty of arrange- 
ment and disposition to the parts so assembled together in the 
mind, and correspondence to some proposed model, or adaptation 
to some result ; this is the process of invention, and the work of 
imagination. And what but this is done, when, from ideas col- 
lected from present objects, a picture is formed in the mind wholly 
different in the arrangement of its parts and their distribution, and 
vastly increased in its dimensions ? It is in leaving this picture 
on the mind of the child, vivid in its colors, and complete in all its 
characteristic features, that consists the art of the teacher. 

" No single step in this process can be taken without some 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. — FIRST STEP. 2G5 

exercise of the intelligence. It is, in fact, from one end to the 
other, a process of induction, every element of which is linked to 
another by an obvious causation. Independently of this relation 
in everything made the subject of observation, there will moreover 
be some adaptation of that particular thing — whether it be a sen- 
sible object, or a social or political relation, or a process of art or 
manufacture — to an end or a result ; an adaptation which, if it be 
not obvious, will form a legitimate subject of instruction, and a 
means of educating the reasoning faculty in the child. 

" It is this educative character which gives to the course its 
highest value ; and it is, in point of fact, with a simple reference 
to that character, that I have thought it worth while to record 
here the exposition of it. 

" Geography acquires its full value as a branch of education 
only when it loses the character of an accumulation of facts, un- 
digested by the child's mind, but heaped up in his memory, linked 
by no association with the world of thought and of action which 
immediately surrounds it, or with that which is within it. Tell 
the child to observe the lines of the map which hangs perpetually 
before his eyes, and talk to him only of the names of the places 
indicated upon it, and you will soon weary his attention ; but speak 
to him of the living men who inhabit it ; tell him of their stature, 
and aspect, and dress, and ways of life, and of their forms of wor- 
ship ; speak of the climate of that country ; of the forms of vege- 
table and animal life with which his eye would be conversant if 
he dwelt there ; of the trees and flowers that grow there, and of 
the birds and beasts, and you will carry his interest with you. 
That relation to external things which characterizes their mode of 
being and condition of life, he will understand by a reference to 
his own ; and he will have acquired a knowledge of some of those 
things, in reference to them, the like of which are of interest to 
himself." 

FIKST STEP. 

Object. — 1. To prepare the children to enter with intelligence 
upon the study of geography, by first drawing their observation to 
12 



266 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. — FIKST STEP. 

relative position or place, beginning with the situation of the things 
which they see around them, and the distance of these from each 
other. 2. To give the children a knowledge of the cardinal points 
of the compass, and their use in geographical descriptions. 3. To 
bring before them the mode of representing distances, and to teach 
them a scale of measurement of distance, and the nature and use 
of a map. 

These points are carried out in the following 



LESSONS ON PLACE. 
Lesson 1. 

I. Position of Objects. — Bring before the children three 
objects, say two ink wells and a book. Place the book in the 
middle, with an ink well on each side of it. Let a child do the 
same with two other ink wells and another book, the rest to say 
if rightly done. Alter the position of the objects, putting the ink 
wells in line, and the book in front of them. A second child to 
imitate, &c. Produce four objects, and arrange them, say the ink 
wells in the middle, and the books on each side. Then the books 
in the middle, &c. Then ink wells and books alternately. Then 
ink wells and books, one at each of the four corners of the table, 
children always engaged in imitating, or deciding on the correct- 
ness of another's imitation. 

II. Having arranged the objects as before, disarrange them, 
and let the children rearrange them from memory. After going 
through the exercises before performed in this way, introduce one 
or two new exercises ; as, for instance, two ink wells behind, and 
two books before. 

Lesson 2. 

Relative Position of the Parts of the Room. 

I. Let the children name the place in which they are sitting. 
See if they can distinguish, by name, the parts of the room ; as, 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. — FIRST STEP. 267 

floor, wall, celling, pointing to each as directed. To bring out the 
position of these, let them point to that part of the room which is 
nearest to their feet. Name that part (floor). S. R. : " The floor 
is below our feet." Teacher ascends a chair in the middle of the 
room, desiring the child to point to that part of the room nearest 
her head. S. R. : " The ceiling is above our heads." Require 
the children to put their slates above their heads, also below their 
feet. Lead them to observe where the ceiling is, with reference 
to the floor ; and the floor, with reference to the ceiling. Next de- 
sire them to point to the walls. A child to go round the room, 
touching the wall as he goes. S. R. : " The walls go round the 
room." In the same way develop the ideas of between, before, 
behind. 

II. Exercise the children in pointing out the position of vari- 
ous parts of the room, with respect to other parts of the room, 
or to themselves, or articles of furniture, exercising them in apply- 
ing the terms learned. 

Lesson 3. 

Representation of Position. 

Place upon the table five objects ; as, book, pen, slate, ink 
well, india rubber. Require them to notice and describe the rela- 
tive position of each of the objects on the table. Then draw an 
outline of the table on the board, or on the floor, marking within, the 
objects as they stand, according to the direction of the children ; 
e. g., the slate in the middle ; the books in the farthest corner, on 
the side nearest the wall, on the left hand ; the india rubber in the 
opposite corner, on the right hand ; the pen and the ink well in 
the remaining corners respectively. Exercise the children in 
touching first the objects, and then their representations, on the 
board or floor. Then alter the positions of the objects, putting 
them in line, from the right-hand corner on one side, to the left- 
hand corner on the other side. Again mark them on the board or 
floor, as directed. Lastly, rearrange the objects in any other way, 
and let a child mark the position on the board. Several exercises 
to be had in this way. 



268 elementary geography. — first step. 

Lesson 4. 

East and West. 

When the children have been accustomed to determine the 
relative position of objects, they must be led to consider places in 
the same point of view, and to this end they should be made ac- 
quainted with the use of the several points of the compass. Begin 
by collecting from them anything they may have observed with 
respect to the apparent course of the sun ; where they have seen 
it rise in the morning, and where set in the evening ; and tell 
them that the place in the heavens where it rises, is called the 
East ; that in which it sets, the West. Then question them in 
different ways, to see that they have understood the information 
given, and that it is well fixed in their minds. Call out some of 
the children, and tell them to place themselves with their right 
hands to the east, and their left hands to the west. Bid them look 
toward the east. Ask them what they might expect to sec there 
early in the morning ? Desire them to look to the west, and say 
when they would see the sun in that direction. Ask which is the 
western, and which the eastern side of the room, and the same of 
the playground. Through which windows will the sun shine in 
the morning, and through which in the afternoon ? The other 
afternoon, as I was walking, I saw the sun before me like a great 
ball of fire, and then it gradually sunk, till I lost sight of it ; in 
what direction must I have been walking ? My bedroom window 
is very nicely placed, for the sun shines into my room the first 
thing in the morning, to tell me it is time to get up ; to what part 
of the heavens is my window opposite ? By similar questions fix 
well in the children's minds which are the eastern and western 
points. Excite them to observe, both at home and at school, 
where the sun may be seen at different parts of the day, and close 
the lesson by a simultaneous repetition: " That direction in which 
the sun rises, is called the East ; and that in which it sets, the 
West." 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. — FIKST STEP. 269 

Lesson 5. 

North and South. 

This lesson should commence with a repetition of the preced- 
ing one. Some children may then be called out, and bid to place 
themselves with their right hands to the east, and their left to the 
west, and then be told that the point directly before them is the 
North, and that directly behind them the South. Make them re- 
peat together : "If we stand with our right hands to the east, and 
our left hands to the west, the point directly before us is the North, 
and that directly behind us is the South." What must you ob- 
serve, in order to find out where the east and west are ? If you 
know the east and west, how can you find out the north and 
south ? Ask the direction in which the children who have been 
called out must walk, if they wish to go to the north side of the 
room, and in which if they wish to go toward the south ? Let 
them determine the north, south, east, and west sides of their school- 
room and playground. Call out one child, and bid him walk from 
north to south, another from south to east, and another to walk in 
whatever direction he pleases, the children in the room determining 
which way he goes. Let the children place a stick or draw a line 
with chalk upon the floor in the direction of north and south, east 
and west. Hold up two pieces of wood or card, crossing each 
other at right angles, one of them pointing directly north and 
south, and let the children say which end points north, and which 
east. 

In such exercises, the object is to occupy only so much time 
upon each new idea as may suffice to fix it on the mind. The 
manner in which it is presented should be varied, that the lesson 
may be interesting. To effect this, the children should themselves 
be actors as far as is consistent with tolerable order. A teacher 
should recollect that it is both unnecessary and unwise to expect 
little children to be always in precise order ; this would be un- 
natural to the joyous and active habits of infancy. The teacher 
should know when the strictness of discipline may be safely re- 
laxed, while, on the other hand, the power of maintaining order 
should never be relinquished. 



270 elementary geography. — fikst step. 

Lesson 6. 

Repetition of Preceding Lessons. 

It may be desirable that this lesson should consist of exercises 
on the points of the compass. Let the children determine the 
position of the different articles in the room. Call upon some of 
them to say in what direction they must move to go to these ; in 
what direction they must walk in order to reach their homes, and 
in what direction on coming from home to school. The teacher's 
own judgment must determine as to whether or not she bring a 
new subject before the children in this lesson. This will depend 
much upon the aptitude with which past lessons have been ac- 
quired. She must see to it that her children are firm on one step 
of the ladder of knowledge, before they proceed to another ; and 
she must be careful not to weary and disgust them, by keeping 
them too long on one idea. 

Lesson 7. 
Semi-cardinal Points. 

In order to test the clearness of the children's apprehension, 
the following questions might be put : 

Suppose you wished to describe the particular direction of 
some place, how would you do it ? Yes ; you would tell me it 
was either to the north, or south, or east, or west. And how 
should I be able to find out which is the north, south, east, or 
west ? By observing where the sun sets or rises. 

When we wish to represent the situations of different places 
on paper or on a slate, we call the top the north ; where, then, 
will the south be represented ? At the bottom of the blackboard. 
Where the east ? and where the west ? The teacher- writes the 
four cardinal points on the blackboard. How many points have 
you learned ? But are things or places always exactly at the 
north, the south, the east, or the west ? Where may they be ? 
They may be between any two of these points, and you should 
know how to describe their position in this case. Now attend, 
and I will teach you this. A point halfway between the north 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. SECOND STEP. 271 

and east is said to be northeast. What do you think halfway be- 
tween north and west is called ? Yes ; northwest. And what 
between south and east ? Yes ; southeast. And what between 
south and west ? Yes ; southwest. The teacher writes these 
names on the board. How many points do you now know? 
Repeat them together. Where is the northwest? where the 
southwest ? &c. Call a child to point to these on the board, the 
other children say what is pointed to. Then call upon the 
children to determine the place of these eight different points in 
the room. Then call out a child, and tell him to take a position 
at the northeast, another at the northwest, &c. Then desire a 
child to go to any point he may please, and another to point out 
upon the board the direction in which he stands. Such exercises 
will show whether the children understand the direction of the 
cardinal points, and those positions in a map which usually repre- 
sent them. The lesson should conclude with a simultaneous repe- 
tition of the names of all the cardinal points of the compass. 



SECOND STEP. 
Lesson 1. 

The Necessity for Standard Points of Direction. — The Relative 
Position of Objects. 

Of how many points of the compass do you know the names ? 
Repeat them. Show me where you would look for each point, 
and where each point would be represented on the board. When 
we know where these points are, we can easily direct each other 
here and there, which is very convenient. Can you tell me any 
other way of directing a person except by these points ? Yes ; 
by telling him to go to the right, or to the left. Let us try this. 
Now direct me in which direction to walk ; I wish to go to the 
door. You must go to the right. The teacher turning half 
round : Must I go to the right now ? No. Is the door in all 
cases to my right ? No. What must you know before you can 
direct a person to go to the right or left ? We must know in 



272 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. — SECOND STEP. 

what position he stands. If, then, a person in the next room, or 
at a distance, were to send and ask you how to find some place, 
would it do to say, It is to your right, or left ? No. Why not ? 
But if you tell him that the place he wishes to find is to the north 
or south of the place in which he then is, will this help him to 
know the situation of the place he seeks ? Yes. ■ "Why ? Could 
his moving alter the place of the north or south ? Your right 
hand or your left hand may change their position, but the points 
of the compass are always fixed, and this is the reason they are 
so useful in describing the position of different places. You can 
direct people how to travel, by telling them that the places to 
which they go are toward the north or south, &c. Now you shall 
say where the different objects in this room are situated. Where 
is the table ? the stove ? the windows ? the door ? the cabinet ? 
any particular picture ? &c. Now we will represent the position 
of all these upon a slate. 

Name something in this room. The cabinet. On what side 
of this room is the cabinet ? It is on the north side. Which 
part of the slate represents the north side ? I will put a mark 
there to represent the cabinet. Now tell me what object is on the 
west side of the room. Which side of the slate represents the 
west ? I will put marks at this side of the slate for those things 
which you describe as being to the west.* In this manner the 
situation of the principal parts of the room and its various con- 
tents may be represented on the slate. What have I done ? You 
have put marks on the slate which show where the different things 
in the room are situated. Yes • whether they are toward the 
north, south, &c. 

Lesson 2. 

Boundaries of the Schoolroom.^ 

Repeat the names of those points of the compass which you 
have learned. One of you come and show me where each point 

* The slate should be first placed horizontally, this being the natural posi- 
tion of the earth's surface ; afterward it should be placed in a vertical position, 
opposite the class. 

t It has been suggested that lessons on Physical Geography might be well 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. SECOND STEP. 273 

would be represented on the blackboard. We will now draw on 
the board the shape or plan of this room. How many sides has 
the room ? Four. "Which is the north side ? Where must I 
place the line representing it ? At the top of the board. Where 
is the south side of the room ? Where must I represent it on the 
board ? At the bottom. What length must this line be ? The 
same length as that which represents the north. Why ? Be- 
cause the north and south of the room are of the same length. In 
what side of this room is the door ? It is in the west side. 
Where must I draw a line,- that it may represent the west side 
of this room ? On the left side of the slate. What length must 
the line be ? It must be longer than the other lines. What side 
remains to be represented ? The east side. Where must I 
draw the line representing it ? To the right of the other lines. 
What length must I make it ? The same in length as the west 
side. What sides of the room are alike ? What figure have 
I drawn ? An oblong. What do the lines represent ? The 
walls of the room. How far does the room extend ? As far as 
the walls. How many walls has the room ? These four walls 
are the boundaries of the schoolroom ; they bound it. What are 
the walls to the rooms ? They are its boundaries. How are 
these boundaries represented on the blackboard ? By lines. And 
what figure do these four lines make ? An oblong. And what 
does this oblong that I have drawn on the board represent ? The 
shape of the room. I have drawn lines representing the bound- 
aries of the room, and these show its shape. If, then, I wish to 
draw the plan of any room or place, what must I do ? You must 
draw its boundaries. The children should repeat together : " The 
walls are the boundaries of the room. They are represented on 
the board by h'nes, which describe its shape." 

introduced at this stage of instruction, before the consideration of the nature 
of a map. On this point teachers should be guided by their own judgment and 
experience. 

12* 



274 elementary geography. second step. 

Lesson 3. 

Boundaries Continued. — The Playground. 

What was the subject of the last lesson? It was on the 
boundaries of the room. And what did the boundaries show ? 
The shape of the room. By how many walls is it bounded ? By 
four walls. The teacher calls a child to point out which line repre- 
sents the northern, which the southern, which the eastern, and 
which the western boundary. Now we will draw the boundaries 
of the playground. This may be done in the same way as those 
of the schoolroom. 

Lesson 4. 

The Relative Distances of the Various Parts of the Schoolroom 
and its Furniture. 

The plan of the schoolroom is presented, and the children 
asked what it represents. The form of the schoolroom. What 
determines its form ? The boundaries of it. By how many lines 
are these boundaries represented ? By four lines. What more 
do you learn from this representation of the schoolroom ? We 
find out where its different parts are situated. How would you 
describe the situation of any one part of it ? I would say, It is 
to the north, the south, the east, or the west. Now that you have 
learned how the parts of the room and the things it contains are 
situated with respect to the cardinal points of the compass, tell me 
the two things you have learned from this representation of the 
schoolroom ? We have learned the shape of the room as marked 
by its boundaries, and the situation of the things it contains with 
respect to the points of the compass. Repeat this together. 

You may call this representation of the schoolroom a plan or 
map of it. And now we will talk about the distances things are 
from each other ; as to which are near each other, and which are 
far from each other. Point out to me two things which are near 
each other. And now two things which are far from each other. 
What object is near the table? What halfway between the table 
and the cabinet ? Where is the middle of the room ? Which 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. SECOND STEP. 275 

parts of the room are farthest from the middle of it ? One of you 
go and stand halfway between the middle of the room and the 
end. By how much are the ends of the room further from the 
middle of it than the sides are ? See, I will measure the distance 
of each of these by my feet. In this manner the teacher must 
endeavor to make the children determine the relative distances 
from each other of the several parts of the room and its contents, 
and also their relative positions. 

Lesson 5. 

The Relative Distance from each other of the Parts of the School- 
room and its Furniture as Marked on a Map. 

What was the subject of your last lesson ? The distance from 
each other of the things in the room. We will now mark their 
several positions upon our map. Which is the northern boundary 
of the room ? Where on the map is this recess to be drawn ? 
What things are placed along the northern wall ? Now show me 
which line represents the northern boundary of the room, and tell 
me where to put marks so as to show the place of each of the 
things which stand near that wall of the room. Having marked 
the relative position of the windows, doors, and school furniture, 
and thus produced a map of the room, the children will begin to 
understand its use, and what it is intended to represent. What 
have we been doing in this lesson ? Representing the situation 
of the things in the room. Did you not learn in a former lesson 
how things are represented on a map ? What did you learn in 
that lesson ? We learned how to determine whether they were 
north, or south, or east, or west. And what have you now 
learned ? We have learned to notice the distance one thing is 
from another. You learned in the former lesson how things are 
situated with respect to the cardinal points of the compass, and 
now you have learned to observe their situation as it respects each 
other. 



276 elementary geography. — second step. 

Lesson 6. 

The Scale to which a Map is Drawn. 

A map of the schoolroom on a large scale is shown to the chil- 
dren, and then another, drawn to a scale much smaller. What 
difference do you observe in these two maps ? Yes ; one of them 
is much smaller than the other, yet they both represent the same 
room. Then a map may equally represent a place, whether it be 
large or small. This idea may be further worked out by drawing 
a large picture of some familiar object, say of a pair of scissors, 
and also a small picture of the same. What are both these ? 
They are the representations of a pair of scissors. Does each of 
these represent the same pair of scissors equally well ? The 
teacher draws another picture in which the bows are dispropor- 
tionately large. Does this picture also properly represent the scis- 
sors ? Why not ? The bows are not in proportion to the other 
parts. The children repeat : " We may have a large or small 
picture of a thing, but the several parts must be in proportion to 
each other." So we may have a large or fmall map, but each 
part must have its true proportion, and we will now draw such a 
map of the schoolroom. What does this map of the schoolroom 
represent ? Its boundaries. Now we will measure the length of 
the schoolroom by a foot measure. One of the children should 
measure it, and another see that this is correctly done. How 
many feet of length, then, are represented on this map ? Let us 
measure how many inches the map is in length. How many 
inches of length on the map will represent the number of feet of 
length in the schoolroom ? How many feet will half the length 
of the room be ? By how many inches will they be represented 
on the map ? Now we will draw a line across the middle of the 
room, and also across the middle of the map. How many feet 
will there be in a quarter of the length of the room ? We will 
draw lines at the quarters. This may go on until a complete scale 
of the map is made ; and the exact position of each object may 
be determined, and a mark made on the map for each, the number 
of feet being represented by a corresponding number of inches. 
The children may be asked a variety of questions as to the dis- 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. THIRD STEP. 277 

tances of the different parts of the room and the objects it con- 
tains, and where the points or figures representing them are to be 
placed on the map. 



THIRD STEP. 

Lesson 1. 

Measurement by Miles. 

"When we drew the plan or map of the schoolroom, what size 
did we find it ? "What was the length of the map or plan in 
inches ? How much, then, of the room, did each inch of the map 
represent ? But when we come in from a walk or ride, do we talk 
of how many feet or inches we have walked ? No ; such dis- 
tance is too great to be reckoned by inches or feet, so we estimate 
it by the mile. Can any of you tell me the name of a place 
which is a mile or half a mile from this place ? How many miles 
can you walk in an hour ? It is very important that the children 
should first form a definite idea of a mile. If they know any two 
places a mile distant from each other, they can compare other dis- 
tances with this, thus following the plan taken from " Geography 
for Young Children :" 

" If practicable, a mile, or an aliquot part of it, as a quarter 
or a half, should be actually measured by the pupil, which he may 
do with ease by means of a string ten yards long, 44 of which are 
a quarter of a mile, and 176 are a mile. Boys are found to take 
great pleasure in such measurements. As mistakes are apt to arise 
with large numbers, one of the pupils who is measuring, and who 
goes first, should be provided with eleven bits of stick and four 
pebbles. This first boy lays down one stick for each space of ten 
yards, measured by the string, which the second boy picks up. 
When the eleven sticks have been picked up by the second boy, 
they must be given back for one pebble ; and when the second 
boy has got all the pebbles, the measurement of the quarter of a 
mile is completed. This may be repeated until a mile has been 
measured. They may afterward try how long they take in walk- 



278 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. THIRD STEP. 

ing a quarter of a mile or a mile, and then from this calculate how 
long it would take them to walk greater distances. 

" Either boys or girls may also easily measure a mile with tol- 
erable correctness, by pacing it. They should learn to take two 
paces to the yard, when 880 such paces are a quarter of a mile, 
and 3,520 a mile. Those who step two feet more conveniently, 
make 2,640 paces to the mile." 



Lesson 2. 

A Map of the Neighborhood, with a Scale of Miles. 

When the children have been well exercised in determining 
the distances of places in their own neighborhood by the standard 
measure of a mile and its aliquot parts, they should learn how an 
idea of such distance is given by a scale. Having first deter- 
mined how many miles she will represent by an inch, let the 
teacher draw the principal road of the locality, and, knowing the 
distances of different houses or other points of interest, mark them 
down according to her scale of distance, and thus work out before 
her class a map of the immediate locality. The children may be 
exercised on this for two or three lessons, as the calculations such 
a subject involves, and the fact of its drawing out the knowledge 
they have acquired by their own observation, will be sure to in- 
terest them, and prepare them to understand the construction of 
maps embracing an area of many miles. 

In larger towns and cities an outline map of the locality should 
be presented to the class, containing the streets, the streams, 
bridges, canal or railroad, the depot, the principal places of busi- 
ness, all public buildings and prominent points of interest. Pre- 
paratory to this, however, the children should draw a map of the 
block or ward in which their school is situated, locating the homes 
of the children. If practicable, then take them to some high hill 
or eminence overlooking the town, and either make a rough map 
of it on the spot, or, with an outline map before them, point out on 
the map the objects seen in the landscape. This map should be 
drawn to a scale, so that the children can calculate by measure- 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. — THIRD STEP. 279 

merit the distance of one point from another. Question them as 
to their relative position. How long it would take them to go 
from one locality to another, knowing the distance. Describe 
various localities by the streets, and direction from other points ; 
the uses of the race, the canal, the railroad, the light-house, the 
harbor ; the object of the mill, the machine shop, the factory, the 
various things manufactured in them ; the uses of the public build- 
ings, the parks, &c. In short, make them quite familiar with 
everything connected with their own locality. 

The following lessons are designed to introduce the study of 
Physical Geography, by careful observation of the natural features 
of the immediate neighborhood, or, in the absence of any local 
exemplification, by the exhibition of models or pictures, or by the 
construction of examples of the ordinary irregularities of the 
earth's surface, in a box of moist sand. The usual verbal geo- 
graphical definitions should be taught the children when they have 
acquired a clear perception of the objects they describe. The fol- 
loAving valuable suggestions on this subject are quoted from Mr. 
Moseley's report : 

" Violence is done to the intelligence of a child, hitherto lim- 
ited to the narrow range of objects of which it is itself the centre, 
and bound up with associations so purely local, when, by a rude 
attempt, its mind is made to expatiate over half the globe, and 
pass to the conception of a region, placed, perhaps, under a wholly 
different relation of external circumstances. These things are not 
to be approached by any such abrupt or compendious process, or 
otherwise than by the steps of a slow and gradual progression. 
Not, for instance, by teaching the child geographical definitions,* 

* Taking into account, not only the entire ignorance of everything connected 
with geography which the elementary teacher must suppose in the outset of her 
task, but the poverty of the vocabulary of the children as to all forms of speech 
which are not strictly colloquial, I cannot but think that a strange idea of the 
world which a child would derive from a definition such as the following, which 
forms the first paragraph of many books on geography : " Geography is a de- 
scription of the earth. The figure of the earth is that of a sphere or globe, slightly 
flattened at the top and bottom, like an orange. A straight line passing through 
its centre from the north to the south is called its axis, and the points in which 
this line meets the surface of the earth are called respectively its north and south 
poles. The earth turns round upon this axis once in the course of twenty-four 



280 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. THIRD STEP. 

or by accustoming it to recognize by their names places pointed 
out to it on the map. 

" To understand the distinction, we have only to consider how 
many things go to our own conception of a distant region. The 
map serves, indeed, to define the idea we have of it, to give it 
vividness and completeness, but it does not originate it. 

" We already know what a country is, which the poor child 
does not. When a country is pointed out by name to him upon 
the map, and he has learned to tell how, in respect to the four car- 
dinal points, it is bounded by other countries, and what are the 
names of its rivers, and mountains, and chief towns, his memory 
may have been largely taxed, and yet his principal idea of the 
country may, nevertheless, remain, in a great degree, identified 
with an irregular figure upon a piece of paper. A vast chasm is 
interposed in the child's mind between the objects with which he 
is himself familiar, and those of which, in such instruction, he is 
required to conceive the existence — a chasm which his imagina- 
tion is not strong enough to bear him over. 

" In truth, he has never accustomed himself to observe with 
any precision or accuracy that part of the world which is close 
around him. The whole scene has painted itself daily before him, 
but has left no well-defined traces in his memory. His percep- 
tions are too vague and too incoherent to be separated from the 
material things on which they have been formed, or to be pre- 
sented to the imagination, and made the subject of comparison, of 
analogy, of accumulation, and of invention. 

" The first step in his education is to teach him to observe. 
Under the direction of a skilful instructor, many qualities of the 
things around him, which had before altogether escaped his notice, 
will, by more careful observation, be added to his knowledge, and 
all his former impressions will acquire an unaccustomed distinct- 
ness and precision. This accomplished, and the child knowing at 

hours, from which revolution follow the appearances of day and nigM." Not- 
withstanding that the acquaintance of the children who have learned geography 
with the words of this or some similar definition, is almost universal, I never yet 
was fortunate enough to meet with one who knew what the earth's axis really 
is, or the earth's poles. 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. — THIRD STEP. 281 

length adequately, for the purpose in hand, the characteristic fea- 
tures of that portion of the earth's surface which is within his own 
country, its varieties of elevation and aspect, its hills, valleys, and 
streams, his attention may be directed to the divisions into towns ; 
also into fields, and the fences which bound them. The boundaries 
of these, with which his memory is familiar, being represented on the 
blackboard by chalk lines, will convey to him his first idea of a 
map and its uses ; that idea will, moreover, be precise and" truth- 
ful. The next step might make him acquainted with the general 
features of the watershed of the district ; and then the teacher 
would bring under his view the useful productions which it is 
made to yield by labor, whether pastoral, or agricultural, or min- 
eral, associated as these are with the characteristic features of its 
surface-level, its climate, drainage, aspect, and soil. Then the pur- 
suits of its inhabitants, whether agricultural, or manufacturing, or 
commercial, in alliance with these, and dependent upon them. 
Next, the domain of natural history may be made to yield much 
for his instruction, in respect to the infinite variety of animal and 
vegetable forms which are assembled within the reach of his im- 
mediate observation ; the birds which frequent that region, the 
domestic and wild animals, some of the tribes of insects, the com- 
moner plants which grow around him, and the different kinds of 
trees. It is not proposed to burden the child's mind, in respect to 
any of these matters, with scientific distinctions or a hard nomen- 
clature ; all that is sought is a knowledge of them in their ordi- 
nary relations ; such a knowledge as the child acquires in respect 
to those other things with which he is most familiar." 

Plan. — First, to call attention to the immediate locality, the 
schoolroom, playground, street, &c, gradually extending the sphere 
of observation by embracing the physical features of adjacent 
places, noticing each point of variety, either in inequality of the 
surface of the ground, or in the form of any natural collections of 
water which may be accessible. This close observation of home 
and its neighborhood will give distinctness and vividness to the 
perceptions of the children, and enable them easily to conceive the 
analogous natural features of other countries as similar in kind, 
though on a larger scale. The children should learn to describe 



282 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. — THIRD STEP. 

the different appearances of land and water, and their variety in 
form and general character. They should also be made acquainted 
with the various means of travelling, as on railroads, turnpike 
roads, canals, rivers, and seas. Much attention should be paid to 
accuracy of language in describing the different appearances of 
land and water. The terms used should be thoroughly explained, 
and repeated, till they become impressed upon the memory. Too 
much importance cannot be attached to this idea of thoroughness 
in all these exercises.* 

Lesson 1. 

The Earth on which we Live. 

The teacher may first lead the children to see that the surface 
of the earth on which we live may be divided into land and water, 
the one solid and immovable, the other liquid and flowing. 

They may then be led to consider the adaptations of land and 
water to our necessities, convenience, and habits of life. 

They will readily discover that we need the solid earth that 
we may walk upon it, and build our dwellings on it, and also 
for the production of food for men and animals. 

"Water is necessary to the life of man, and also to that of ani- 
mals and vegetables. It supplies us with drink, and affords an 
easy mode of conveyance. 

The' lesson may be summed up. God has covered our earth 
with land and water, both of which are necessary to us ; thus 
proving to us His goodness, and His care for our happiness and 
well-being. 

Lesson 2. 

The Division of Land into Mountains and Plains. 

The teacher refers to the last lesson, proposing to find out 
something more respecting the land. Ask the children whether, 

* The teacher may derive considerable assistance in these exercises from a 
little work called " First Ideas of Geography," published by J. W. Parker, 
Strand, London. 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. THIRD STEP. 283 

when they walk across the schoolroom or the playground, they 
can do so easily, and if they have ever, in other places, found it 
more difficult to walk than it is there ? Then ask if they have 
ever seen horses drawing a cart with ease along a road, and then 
coming to a place where they could with difficulty drag it ? thus 
leading them to the recollection of some rising ground or hill. 

"What kind of land is that upon which it is easy to move 
along ? That which is flat and level. And what kind of land is 
that on which it is more difficult to move ? "What difference may 
we then say there is in the land ? Some ground is quite flat and 
even, and some rises up.* Sometimes a large extent of land is 
flat. "We call such land a plain. If I talk to you about a plain, 
what will you understand the word to mean ? Repeat together : 
"A large piece of land, that is quite flat and even, is called a 
plain.'' And what name do you give to those places at which 
the land rises up ? "We call them hills. Can you tell me the 
names of any hills you may have seen ? When do you call the 
land a hill? But sometimes the land rises a. great deal higher 
than the hills you have seen, so high that the top of it is in the 
clouds ; it is then called a mountain. In what are hills and moun- 
tains alike ? They both are rising ground. In what do they 
differ? Mountains rise higher than hills. Repeat together : "A 
mountain is land that rises a great deal higher than a hill." 

Lesson 3. 

Mountains. 

The teacher calls upon the children to say how the earth is 
divided, and what differences they have already noticed in the form 
of the land. They may then be allowed to see a model or picture 
of some country, and to determine which elevations represent the 
lulls, and which the mountains. 

The teacher should then call upon them to find out the parts 
into which a mountain may be divided. 

What part of a mountain do we first come to as we walk 

* Here reference may be made to some adjacent hill or rising ground. 



284: ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. THIRD STEP. 

toward it ? The bottom of it. This is called the base. Look at 
this model of a mountain, and run your finger round the base. 
Repeat together : " The lowest part of a mountain is called the 
base." When you go up a hill, where do you begin to ascend ? 
At the base. You may call that part of the base at which you 
begin to ascend, the foot of the hill. "What part of anything do 
we call its foot? Thejowest part. Now point to the foot of the 
mountain or hill on this model. Where do you begin to go up 
the hill ? At the foot. 

Now point out to me some other part of a mountain. The 
top. This is called the summit. What part of a mountain would 
you call its summit ? The highest part. Now tell me some other 
part that you observe. Those between the summit and the base. 
These are called the sides of the mountain. When you look down- 
ward from the summit of a mountain, what appearance have the 
sides ? They seem to slope downward. And when you look at 
them from the base, what appearance have they ? They seem to 
slope upward.* The children should then repeat together the 
names of the several parts of a mountain, and describe each of 
them. 

The teacher may now propose that the children should help to 
describe a walk up a mountain, supplying whatever they may omit 
to notice. We came first to the — -foot — of the mountain ; we 
then began — to go up the side — with some — difficulty ; at last we 
arrived at the — summit, — where the wind blew fresh, and we 
could see the country on every side to a great distance. When 
we had rested, we — came down the side — of the mountain, which 
we did much more — easily — and — quickly — than we went up, and 
at last came again to the — base. 

Lesson 4. 

A Chain of Mountains — Valleys. 

What do we call elevated portions of land ? Hills and moun- 
tains. A mountain seldom stands alone. Look at this chart. 

* These questions may seem tedious and unnecessary, but it is by such teach- 
ing that children are led to realize that which is brought before them. 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. THIRD STEP. 285 

What do you notice as to the mountains ? Many of them are 
joined together. Try to find out a word to express the idea of a 
set of mountains of which one joins another, and that another, 
and so on. "What do you call a number of rings of metal, when 
thus joined together ? A chain. What, then, do you think 
would be a proper name for a set of mountains which are joined 
together in a somewhat similar manner ? A chain of mountains. 

Now look at this representation of a chain of mountains, and 
tell me anything you notice. 

The children will observe that smaller mountains run from the 
sides of the principal chain, and that deep hollows are left between 
the several elevations. 

You know what the land is called when it is flat or even for a 
considerable distance ? A plain. And you know what it is 
called when it rises up, but not very high ? A hill. And what 
is it called when it rises higher than a hill ? A mountain. I 
think there are some parts of the picture you have just examined 
which you can neither call a mountain, hill, or plain. The land 
that lies between the mountains. What can you say of it ? It 
is deep and hollow. These deeps are called valleys. Now repeat 
together : " The hollow land that lies between hills or mountains 
is called a valley." If I were to tell you that I was going into a 
valley, what would you know there must be on each side of it ? 
Hills or mountains. Sometimes such mountains are very near 
each other. Of what form will the valley be in such a case ? It 
will be narrow. And what if the mountains be far apart ? It 
will then be a broad valley. 

Lesson 5. 

Mountains, Plains, and Valleys — (Continued.) 

You now can tell me three different forms of the land on the 
earth's surface. It may be a plain, a mountain, or a valley. In 
which of these do you think it would be most pleasant to live ? 
Supposing the wind were high, and it were piercingly cold, what 
would be the feelings of people living on a flat open plain ? They 
woidd be very cold. Why ? Because there would be nothing to 



286 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. — THIRD STEP. 

shelter them from the cold blowing wind or driving storm. A 
large open plain is a very cold place in winter, but what will it be 
in summer ? What are you glad to find when the sun shines very 
powerfully ? Yes ; something to shelter and shade you. But 
would you expect to find this in the open plain ? There is no 
rising ground in such places, nor will you find trees, for they do 
not grow well in such exposed places. 

Repeat together : " A plain is cold in winter, and hot in sum- 
mer, because it is open to the cold winds and hot sun. It has no 
mountains or trees to afford shelter." 

In what other place might you live ? In a valley. Of what 
kind of valleys have we spoken ? Of narrow valleys and broad 
valleys. When is a valley narrow ? When the hills'or moun- 
tains between which it lies are near each other. When a valley 
is very narrow, and its direction north and south, what sunlight 
will it have ? The sun can shine fully upon it only when it is in 
the south. Where is the sun in the morning ? In the east. By 
what will it be prevented from shining upon such a valley in the 
morning ? By the mountains on the eastern side of it. And 
what will prevent the setting sun from being seen ? The moun- 
tains on the western side. When, then, will the inhabitants have 
any sun? Only for a short time in the middle of each day. 
When do you think it is very cold in such a valley ? AVhen the 
wind blows from the cold north. Yes ; the wind blows down 
such valleys in strong gusts, and the air does not circulate freely ; 
and on these accounts such narrow valleys are not healthful. In 
what does a broad valley differ from these? The mountains 
bounding it are widely separated. What of the air in such val- 
leys ? It can freely circulate. What advantages have such val- 
leys over the wide open plain ? The mountains afford a shelter. 
Yes ; in such plains you find the air pleasantly blowing, the sun 
cheerfully shining, and still you may find shelter and shade. Now 
tell me where you would like to live, and for what reasons ? * 

* These lessons are not intended to complete the subjects treated of, but only 
to suggest the mode in which they should be handled. A residence on a moun- 
tain might be considered. 



elementary geography. third step. 287 

Lesson 6. 

Benefits Derived from Mountains. 

We have still much to learn about mountains, for, like every- 
thing that God has made, they exist for great purposes. I will 
try and help you to find out some of these. When you are at the 
summit of a mountain, what appearance have its sides ? They 
slope downward. When the several summits of a chain of moun- 
tains are joined together, they form a ridge. Do you know any 
part of a house which is like the ridge of a chain of mountains ? 
The roof. And why are roofs made to slope on each side ? That 
the rain may flow off from them. Into what is it received ? Into 
gutters. Something very like this happens upon mountains and 
hills. What do you suppose becomes of the rain which falls upon 
them ? It runs down the sides. There is always a great deal of 
rain in mountainous countries, for the mountains attract the clouds, 
and these often hang so heavily about them, that they hide their 
summits from our view. As the water runs down, it wears away 
the softer parts of the earth, and forms grooves or channels. Look 
for these on the chart, and tell me what you observe in them. 
Several of them seem to unite. And what will they then form ? 
At first small streams, and then rivers. And what will occur 
when these come to a hollow? The streams will fill it with 
water. Yes ; this constantly happens on mountains ; these little 
streams form little stores of water to supply our springs and 
rivers. 

But it is not the rain that flows down the mountains which 
alone affords us water ; the tops of very high mountains are cov- 
ered with snow. Do you know the manner in which this does its 
part in supplying our springs and rivers ? What happens to snow 
in summer ? It dissolves, and becomes water. And what then 
takes place on the mountains ? The water from the dissolving 
snow flows down their sides. Yes ; and in the countries where there 
are snowy mountains there are always rivers. It is a beautiful 
sight to see the little streams rushing down the hills and feeding 
the rivers that run along the^ valleys, and to think they are all per- 
forming their appointed work. What is one great use of moun- 



288 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. — THIRD STEP. 

tains ? To supply our springs and rivers with water. Yes ; we 
may call them river-feeders. 

Lesson 7. 
Further Benefits Derived from Mountains. 

The teacher recalls the ideas of last lesson by asking the chil- 
dren what benefits we derive from mountains. 

We derive many other benefits from mountains besides those 
we have noticed. They contain many treasures. Do you know 
of what hills and mountains are formed ? You know what this 
is. It is a piece of chalk, and it is part of a hill.* We do not 
find chalk in high mountains, but in hills. What happens to chalk 
when it is rubbed ? It crumbles. And what do you think hap- 
pens to chalk hills when the water rushes down their sides ? 
Some of the chalk is carried down by the water. If water is 
constantly acting upon a substance not very hard, what form does 
it give the substance ? A smooth form. For this reason chalk 
hills are never of sharp and pointed outline, but are rounded and 
gradually sloping. Here is a piece of a mountain. What is this ? 
It is a piece of slate. Large portions of some mountains are 
formed of slate, which is so useful for roofing our houses, and many 
other purposes. Here is another substance, of which many moun- 
tains are composed ; it is called limestone, and is most useful in 
building. 

The children should not at present be detained on the geologi- 
■ cal structure of mountains longer than they may gain an idea of 
their formation, and of the benefit we may derive from them. 

The children may repeat together : " Mountains are useful to 
us as being river-feeders, and as containing abundant mineral 
treasures." 

Lesson 8. 
Lakes. 

Into what did we say the surface of the earth is ■ divided ? 
Into land and water. Have you anywhere seen a quantity of 

* Whilst these lessons are being given, the children's object lessons should 
be on mineral substances. 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. THIRD STEP. 289 

water ? You have seen a pond ; tell me what it is. It is a piece 
of water. What must there be in the land to hold the water ? 
A hollow. There must be a hollow place in the land to contain 
the water ; and what will there be round the edge of the water ? 
The ground, or land. "What differences have you noticed in 
ponds ? They differ in size. But in what are they alike ? They 
all consist of a hollow in the ground, which is full of water. The 
water is bordered by the land. Yes ; you can walk round a pond. 
Sometimes such pieces of water are very large — so large that you 
cannot see how far they reach ; and it would require many hours 
for you to go from one end to the other. These large ponds are 
called lakes. In what are lakes like ponds? They consist of 
water in deep hollows, with the land round them. 

Repeat together : " A large piece of water surrounded by land 
is called a lake." 

Lesson 9. 

Rivers. 

What is a lake ? In what is it like a pond ? Have you ever 
seen any water that is not surrounded by land, and round which 
you could not walk ? The children will in all probability have 
seen a stream or a river ; if not, the picture must be used to 
give them an idea of it. They should endeavor to find out the 
difference between a lake and a river. Tell me all you observe in 
a river. A river is long. What do you observe of the land at 
the bottom of the river ? It is hollow. Is it like the hollow 
place that holds the water of the lake ? In what does it differ ? 
It is narrow, like a groove. It is called the channel, or the bed 
of the river. Find some other parts of a river. The sides. Of 
what are the sides of a river formed ? Of the earth or land. 
These are called the banks of the river. The banks of rivers are 
often very green, producing beautiful flowers ; do you know what 
occasions this ? The water of the river gently moistens the soil, 
and makes it fertile. 

Look at this picture, and tell me where the rivers begin? 
They begin near mountains. What did we call mountains? 
River-feeders. Now tell me where the rivers end ? Some end 
13 



290 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. — THIRD STEP. 

in lakes, and others in the sea. The spot at which they begin is 
called the source, and that at which they empty themselves into 
some large collection of water, as a lake or sea, is called the 
mouth. What more can you say of the water of the river ; is it 
still water ? No ; it is flowing water. The little streams rush 
down the mountains, and open into the rivers ; what must they do 
to the rivers ? They supply them with water. Through what 
kind of land does the river flow ? Often through valleys and low 
grounds, receiving supplies from all the little streams as it flows 
along. And what good does a river do in its course ? It waters 
the country through which it passes, and supplies animals and 
vegetables with that which they need for the support of life. And 
what more ? It supplies the inhabitants of the country with 
water. Is it of any other use ? Have you ever seen anything 
borne on the water ? Boats and barges. Why were they float- 
ing on the water ? They were going on the water from one place 
to another. Yes ; and there were people living on those vessels, 
and travelling easily with their goods from place to place. 

Now tell me the parts of a river. The bed or channel, the 
-banks, the source, and the mouth. Now tell me the uses of riv- 
ers. To sustain the life of animals and vegetables, to supply us 
with water for many useful purposes, to float us along from one 
place to another. 

Lesson 10. 
The Sea. 

Where is water found ? In ponds, lakes, and rivers. Yes ; 
but there are places where you will find much more water than in 
these. Do you remember into what we said that the earth's sur- 
face is divided ? Into land and water. There is more water 
than land. Do you know what that very large body of water is 
called, upon which so many ships sail? The sea. Can any of 
you tell me anything about the sea ? Do you know the taste of 
sea water? It is salt. What can you say of the surface of the 
sea ? It is often rough. What makes it rough ? The waves. 
What are these ? They are the water of the sea disturbed by the 
wind. 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. THIRD STEP. 291 

In giving lessons upon the sea, much depends upon the local- 
ity in which the children reside. If there is an opportunity of look- 
ing at the sea, some very useful lessons may be given, calling 
observation into activity ; but if the children have not seen the 
ocean, it may be well to leave the subject, till, at a later period, 
they take up a fuller course of physical geography, when their 
conceptive faculties can be more fully brought to bear on the sub- 
ject. At this early stage, it will be enough that they understand 
that a large portion of our globe is covered with salt water, ever 
heaving and flowing, and that in size and depth the sea is greater 
than anything they can imagine ; that the ocean, as well as every 
other work of God, is formed for some wise purpose ; that it also 
has an office to fulfil, in which it obeys the laws of infinite wis- 
dom, goodness, and power. 

The children may now take an outline map of the county, 
which may be treated in the same general way as the city map. 
In the next step or grade they may take the outline map of the 
State, and then of the United States, before going to the map of 
the world. 



THE HUMAN BODY. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

Lessons on the human body are a good introduction to the 
study of the natural history of the animal creation. They form a 
commencement quite in accordance with the Pestalozzian principle 
of starting from the known. Children should be somewhat familiar 
with their own frame ; they ought to have correct ideas on that 
which so nearly concerns themselves. The subject is also ever 
present, requiring nothing for its illustration other than that which 
is common to all. Such lessons will furnish opportunity for cor- 
recting any vague and imperfect notion the children may have 
acquired, for supplying them with a vocabulary of expressive 
terms, and for giving them such an acquaintance with their own 
organization, as may make it a standard for comparison with that 
of other animals, thus preparing them to understand many won- 
derful details in the modification and adaptation of the organs of 
animals to their peculiar habits, propensities, and localities. 

The following exercises are designed as First Step lessons : 

First Object. — To lead the children to a consideration of their 
own organs, and to teach them a proper nomenclature. 

Plan. — The children to touch any part of their body, when 
the teacher gives the name ; as, the eye, ear, shoulder, leg, foot ; 
the right hand, the left hand ; the arm, hand, fist, &c. 

The teacher next to touch these different parts, the children 
giving the names ; as, You are touching your head, your eyes, 
your chin, cheeks, legs, &c. ; being required to express the idea in 
a short sentence, instead of merely naming the part. 



THE HUMAN BODY. 293 

Sketch of a Lesson on the Parts of the Principal Parts of the Body. 

The teacher to touch one of the arms of a child, asking the 
other children to say what part of the person she is touching ; 
and then lead them to notice that the arm also has parts. An- 
other child to point to some part of the arm — the shoulder, for in- 
stance — the others being asked its name. If they do not know, 
they are to be told it is the shoulder ; and so on with the other 
parts. 

The teacher next to desire the children to point to any part 
of the body she may name, as the shoulder, the elbow, the upper 
arm, forearm, wrist, or hand. If any mistake is made, the others 
to correct it. 

The children next to name the parts to which the teacher 
points ; as, the elbow, shoulder, arm, forearm, wrist, and hand. 
Require them to give the name of each part. 

The teacher next to question the children on the different 
parts, as to their number. How many joints have the arms ? also 
the number of fingers on one hand, and the number of joints in 
each finger ? If they make a mistake in the number, they should 
correct themselves by examining their own arms and hands. 

The teacher to question the children on the use of each part 
of the arm, commencing with the shoulder joint. To call upon 
them to say what they could not do if they had not that joint ; 
asking them to try and lift their hand to their head without bend- 
ing that joint, &c. In the same way, to ask them to tell the use 
of each of the other parts of the arm, and lead them to discover 
the action and utility of the joints of the arm and fingers. 

Second Object. — To make the children well acquainted with 
the principal parts of the body, and to lead them to compare them 
with the different forms of the corresponding organs in other 
animals. 

Plan. — Shown in the following hints for lessons : 

1. "What is the upper part of the body called ? * The head. 

* In order that these lessons may be brought within a moderate compass, 
the answers are not given where they are quite obvious. Teachers should re- 
member that those which are put down are not to be told to the children, but 
rather to be drawn from them. 



294 THE HUMAN BODY. 

"What is the largest part of it called ? The trunk. "What have 
you besides a head and a trunk ? Arms and legs. What are 
these called ? Limbs. Now tell me the three principal parts of 
your body. The head, the trunk, and the limbs. 

2. The Limbs. 

How many limbs have you ? What are the upper limbs 
called ? What are the lower limbs called ? How many legs 
have we ? How many legs has the dog, the cat, the horse ? 
Tell me some other animals that have four legs. How many 
more legs have these animals than we have ? What is the 
consequent difference in their way of standing ? In what does 
the position of our body differ from theirs ? How is this 
suited to our different manner of eating and habits of life ? 
What limbs have we ? Two legs and two arms. How many 
limbs have the animals we have been talking about ? What 
are their limbs ? What difference is there then between these 
animals and ourselves ? Yes ; they have two legs, where we 
have two arms. What do you call those legs which they 
have in the place of our arms ? Fore legs. What do you call 
the other pair ? Hind legs. Tell me some other animals besides 
man that have only two legs.* What have birds in place of 
arms ? What can birds do with their wings, which they could 
not do if they had only legs ? Where are the legs of birds 
placed ? Where are ours placed ? How is the body of birds 
placed ? Compare its position with the position of our body. 
What animals move without either arms, legs, or wings ? How 
do worms move ? What other animals besides worms and ser- 
pents have no limbs ? Where do fish live ? How do they 
move ? What have they where we have limbs ? Now you have 
told me of some animals that have two legs, of some that have 
four, and of some that have none ; can you mention some little 
animals that differ from any of these ? How many legs has a fly 
or bee ? Tell me some other animals that have six legs. A but- 

* Children might here describe the actions performed by the leg in man, 
and compare them with the difl'erent actions of other animals. 



THK HUMAN BODY. 295 

terfly, a wasp, a beetle, a lady-bird, &c. What do you call all 
these animals ? Insects. How many legs have insects ? Insects 
have six legs. How do insects move on the ground ? How do 
they move in the air ? 

As a summary of this lesson, the children should state how 
animals differ as to the number of their legs, and as to their move- 
ments, giving examples of each variety. 

3. The Joints. 

What can we do with our legs ? In how many places can 
we bend them ? Try and find out. In three places. The place 
where we bend a limb is called a joint. "What can we do at a 
joint ? Where is the lowest joint of the leg ? Move your leg, 
and find out. At the ankle. That is called the ankle joint. 
How many ankle joints have you ? Which is the highest place 
at which we move the leg ? At the hip. That is called the hip 
joint. How many hip joints have we ? Where is the middle 
joint of the leg? How many knee joints have we? Now tell 
me all the joints of the legs ? Two ankle joints, two knee joints, 
two hip joints. How many joints have we altogether in the legs? 
When do we make use of our legs without bending any joint in 
them ? When do we bend the knee joint only ? When do we 
bend both the hip and knee joint ? When do we bend all three 
joints of the leg ? Describe our joints when we sit down. When 
we sit down, we bend the joint at the hip, and that at the knee 
also. 

Summary. — The different joints ; what they are ; their use ; 
how many in each leg ; whether the same in other animals. 

4. The Lower Limbs. 

What do you call that part of the lower limb between the hip 
and the knee ? The thigh. And what the part between the 
knee and ankle? The leg. What kind of substance is that 
which is at the hinder part of the leg ? What do you call that 
fleshy part ? The. bone in front of the leg is called the shin bone. 
What part is called the calf of the leg ? That between the knee 



296 THE HUMAST BODY 

and ankle, at the back of the leg. Where are the shin bones ? 
In front of the leg. Now tell me where the thigh is. Between 
the hip and knee. Into how many parts may the lower limb be 
divided ? 

5. The Feet 

Upon what do we stand ? Where are our feet ? How are 
we able to stand upon our feet ? They are wide and flat, and so 
placed on our legs as to rest on the ground. How many feet have 
we ? Think of all the different kinds of feet which animals have. 
What kind of feet have birds ? How do birds move with their 
feet ? What more do birds do with their feet ? How have you 
seen hens use their feet ? Yes ; scratching up the earth, which 
they easily do with their long claws. And how do they use their 
claws when they sleep ? The claws of birds are so formed that 
they cling more tightly when the bird is asleep, so that it does not 
lose its hold. What differences have you observed in the feet of 
birds ? In what respect do the feet of ducks differ from those of 
hens ? They have a skin stretched between the claws. Yes ; 
this kind of foot is called a web-foot. Of what use is a foot of this 
kind to ducks ? Why, then, have hens and ducks such different 
feet ? What kind of feet have cats and dogs ? What kind of 
feet have horses and cows ? Tell me some animals having hoofs. 
What is the difference between the hoof of a cow and that of a 
horse or an ass ? The hoof of the cow is a cloven hoof. Tell me 
some animals that have cloven hoofs. Upon what do animals 
which have hoofs feed ? What do cows, horses, &c, eat ? In 
what way do they eat ? They put their heads down to the grass, 
and bite it off. Why have they no need of claws to lay hold of 
their food ? What kind of feet have cats ? Tell me some other 
animals having paws. What do lions, tigers, and wolves feed 
upon ? What are cats fond of catching ? 

Try and find out why God has wisely given claws to those 
animals that have to catch the prey they feed upon, and hoofs to 
those which feed on grass ? How does God show his care for 
animals in the different kind of feet which He has given them ? 
You see that God takes care that every animal has that which is 



THE HUMAN BODY. 297 

necessary for it. If He takes such care of animals, what may we 
feel sure He will do for us ? And as we can speak, what should 
we do when He gives us so much ? 

Now tell me a part of the foot. The toe. How many toes 
have we on one foot ? How many on both ? What can we do 
with our toes ? What do you call the places where we can bend 
our toes ? What have our toes besides joints ? What difference 
do you observe when you hit or cut your nails, and when you do 
the same to any part of your flesh ? What can you then say of 
the nails ? The nails have no sensation. Why are they placed 
at the end of our toes ? To guard that part which is most sensi- 
tive, and most exposed to injury. 

Tell me some other part of the foot. The lowest part is called 
the sole. Where is the sole of the foot ? There are some other 
parts of the foot which you have not mentioned. Yes ; the part 
that rises up in front ; it is called the instep. What causes it to 
rise up ? Where is the instep ? The instep is in front of the 
foot, and rises up between the toes and the ankle bones. What 
is there at the back of the foot ? Where is the heel ? Repeat 
the different parts of the leg and foot. 

And now tell me what it is that makes the legs stiff and 
strong, and able to support us. What covers the bones ? What 
covers the flesh ? What makes the flesh look pinkish ? 

How do we use our feet ? What is the difference between 
running and walking ? How do we use our feet when we jump ? 
How when we hop ? What do naughty children sometimes do with 
their feet ? What makes them kick ? They give way to anger 
and passion. Whom does this always displease ? Why does it 
displease God ? All such misuse of useful members displeases the 
great God whose eye is ever upon us, and who sees when we are 
angry or in a passion. Tell me some texts that teach us how we 
ought to feel and act toward each other. 

Summary. — The use, position, and number of the feet in man; 
the parts described ; the differing feet of animals ; and what we 
learn in these things of the wisdom and goodness of the Creator. 

13* 



298 THE HUMAN BODY. 

6. The Arms. 

"What are the upper limbs called ? How many arms have 
we ? Where are our arms placed ? At the upper part of the 
body, on either side of the trunk. In what direction are they 
placed ? What advantage is it that they come forward ? How 
many joints are there in one arm ? Try where you can bend 
your arm. Which is the lowest joint of the arm ? It is called 
the wrist. Which is the uppermost joint ? The shoulder joint. 
Which is the middle joint ? The elbow. That part between the 
shoulder and elbow is called the arm ; the part between the elbow 
and wrist is called the fore arm. Point to the fore arm ; to the 
arm. Tell me where the fore arm is ; where the arm is. What 
is below the wrist ? 

7. The Hands. 

Tell me the different parts of the hand. The inside of the 
hand is called the palm of the hand. Show me the palm of the 
hand. What do you call those bones on the back of the hand 
which project ? The knuckle hones. What use do we make of 
the knuckles ? What, then, are the knuckles ? How many 
fingers have we ? Tell me the different parts of a finger. How 
many joints are there on each finger ? How many on all the 
fingers of one hand ? What is the use of the nails ? Where are 
they placed? Why are they so placed? What kind of sub* 
stance is the nail ? Horny. Find out some uses in its being 
horny. It guards the tender part of the fingers, making them 
most useful in various delicate operations. What other part of 
the body is without feeling ? What are those parts of animals 
which have no feeling ? What are the names of the several 
fingers ? The thumb, fore finger, middle finger, ring finger, little 
finger. What do you call this hand {holding up the right hand) ? 
What this ? Now tell me, as I hold up a finger, what particular 
finger it is, and of which hand. Middle finger of left hand; fore 
finger of right hand, &c. What is the shape of the fingers ? 
How do the fingers differ ? What can we do with our hands ? 
In what manner do we pick up anything ? How do we hold a 



THE HUMAN BODY. 299 

needle ? "Why cannot we use our toes in the same manner as our 
fingers ? Because the toes are all placed in a row ; but the thumb 
can be brought opposite to the fingers, and thus the hand is fitted 
to lay hold of things.* How can women fully employ their 
hands ? How can men use their hands in earning their daily 
bread ? What animals have hands ? Monkeys. How many 
hands have monkeys ? Where do monkeys live ? In trees. 
What is the use of their hands ? To lay hold of the branches. 
How, then, are they well fitted to live in trees ? They have four 
hands to lay hold of the branches of the trees. Can the monkey 
point at anything with the first finger, as you can ? No ; man 
only can do this ; he has on this account been called " the point- 
ing animal." 

Summary. — To repeat all the different parts of the arm and 
hand ; and the adaptation of hand and foot to their respective 
offices. 

8. The Head. 

You have now told me about the arms and legs. By what 
other name may we call our arms and legs ? To what are the 
limbs joined ? Where is each placed ? The arms at the upper 
part of the trunk move forward ready to lay hold of things ; the 
legs at the lower part, and in a line with the body, to keep it 
erect. What is at the top of the trunk ? What do you feel when 
you touch your head ? The bone of the head is called the skull. 
Within the skull is the brain — a very tender organ ; how is it 
guarded? What is the front of the head called? Tell me the 
different parts of the face ; begin at the top. The forehead. 
What are on the sides of the forehead ? The temples. Where 
is the forehead ? At the top of the face, above the eyes ; be- 
tween the temples. What is next to the forehead ? 

9. The Eyes, and Sense of Sight. 

How many eyes have we ? What do you call this eye ? The 

* It should be made obvious to the children, that as the foot is well formed 
to support the body, so is the hand for an organ of prehension, that they may 
be led to see how beautifully the Creator has adapted everything to its appointed 
work. 



300 THE HUMAN BODY. 

right eye. And this ? The left eye. Look at the eye of the 
child next to yon, and tell me the different parts of it. Look at 
the middle of the eye. The dark spot is called the pupil. Look 
and see if it is the same in every eye. "What is it called ? "What 
do you observe round it ? That colored ring round the pupil is 
called the iris. Look and see if the iris is the same in every eye. 
In some it is blue, in some brown, &c. In what are the pupil and 
iris placed ? That part of the eye which is round like a ball is 
called the eyeball. How many eyeballs have we ? What have 
we in the eyeball ? In what part of the eyeball is the pupil of 
the eye ? In the front of it. Tell me exactly where the pupil 
of the eye is ? The pupil is in the middle of the front of the 
eyeball, and has the iris around it. Where is the eye placed ? In 
a sort of cup in the skull. This is called the socket or orbit of the 
eye. By what is the eye covered ? How many eyelids have we 
to each eye ? What do you call the eyelid nearest the forehead ? 
What the other ? What eyelid am I touching ? * The upper 
eyelid of the right eye. What is at the edge of the eyelids ? 
What do you call the hairs at the edge of the eyelids ? Are 
there any other hairs near the eye ? What are these called ? 
What is the form of the eyebrows ? Where are they placed ? 

Now try and tell me what you think is the great use of the 
eye ? What do you call those who cannot see ? When is it that 
we who have sight, cannot see ? When it is dark. What, then, 
is necessary to enable us to see ? Where does light come from ? 
When do we lose the light of the sun ? From what other natu- 
ral object have we light ? When does the moon give us light ? 
What happens when we have neither moon nor sun ? We have 
no natural light, and cannot see, when neither the sun nor moon 
shines. 

Now listen seriously to me, and I will tell you a truth like this 
about our souls. God must send the light of his Holy Spirit into 
our souls, or we shall not know what to do to please Him, or how 
to walk in the way of his commandments. What, then, must we 

* It is desirable to vary the lessons by a change in the kind of questions. 
The hints here given may be followed out and extended as far as they may in- 
terest the class. 



THE HUMAN BODY. 301 

pray for ? David, in Psalm xliii. 3, prays that God would lead 
him by His light, 

Now tell me all that we can do with our eyes, besides seeing 
with them. What happens when we weep ? Tears fall. "Why 
do people weep ? Sometimes because they are hurt ; sometimes 
because they are sorry ; sometimes from passion. Is it ever right 
to weep ? Try and find out the pleasures which we enjoy through 
our sight. What are the uses of sight ? 

You see now that for many reasons the eye is very valuable 
to us ; and our kind Heavenly Father has taken great care to 
guard it from accident, as you will discover, if you attend to me. 
Where is the eye placed ? It is lodged in a hollow socket, sur- 
rounded by bone, just as if it were in a box. Now tell me the 
bones that project around it. What is above it ? The forehead. 
What on the sides ? The temples and the nose. What below 
it ? The cheek-bones. These cheek-bones, like walls, guard the 
eyes from being hurt.* Now tell me exactly how the eye is 
placed. How does the eye act when anything comes near it ? 
Observe when I put my hand quickly near this child's eye. Yes ; 
the eyelids close before there is time to think that the eye is in 
danger of being hurt. There is always dust floating in the air ; 
how is it that we are so seldom inconvenienced by it ? The fringe 
of the eyelashes preserves the eye from dust ; but if any should 
fall in, what immediately happens ? Yes ; the tears at once begin 
to flow, and carry it out of the eye. The tears also keep the eye 
constantly moist and clean. f If you wished to have something 
that would roll about easily, of what shape would you have it ? 
And what shape is the ball of the eye ? How, then, is the eye 
fitted to move easily ? It is round in form. 

* In giving this lesson, the teacher can enter into more details as to the 
beautiful protection provided for the eye, and draw out other facts from the 
children themselves. 

t Should the party consist of very intelligent children, the teacher might 
lead them to see that the overhanging eyebrow protects the eye like the roof of 
a cottage; that the iris always dilates, making the pupil smaller, when a sudden 
or strong light comes near the eye, so that less light enters ; and that the super- 
fluous moisture of the eye is carried into the nose, where it moistens the lining 
membrane, and makes the sense of smell more delicate than it could other- 
wise be. 



302 THE IIUMAN BODY. 

Summary. — Repetition of the parts of the eye, and their rela- 
tive position ; the manner in which it is protected from injury ; 
the wisdom and goodness of the Creator; the advantages: and 
pleasures connected with Jhe sense of sight. 

10. The Nose, and Sense of Smell. 

What is there in the middle of your face ? What is above 
the nose ? what below it ? what on each side of it ? How does 
the nose help in guarding the eyes from injury ? Tell me the 
parts of the nose. The holes are called nostrils. How many 
nostrils have we ? How are they divided ? By gristle. The 
end of the nose is called the tip ; the high part of it, the bridge ; 
the outside of the nostrils, the wings. To what do the nostrils 
lead ? There is a passage through them to the back of the mouth, 
through which we breathe ; and there is also a passage from the 
eye to each of them, through which the fluid which cleanses and 
moistens the eye flows. Of what use is the nose ? Do we use 
the nose in smelling only ? How do we feel when we close the 
nostrils ? We cannot breathe freely. Tell me some animals to 
which the sense of smell is very useful. What animals are guided 
in their search for others by the sense of smell ? Dogs are very 
remarkable for their good scent. A dog, having lost his master, 
has been known to follow his steps, street after street, through a 
crowded city, by his scent. What use does man make of dogs in 
consequence of their fine scent ? Not only dogs, but many other 
animals are directed in finding their food by this faculty. Some 
birds have wonderful scent, and can discover putrid flesh at a 
great distance, even when they are high in the air ; such birds are 
very useful in clearing away that which would make the air very 
unhealthy. What animal has a long nose called a snout? How 
does the pig use its snout ? Many animals besides the pig use the 
snout in grubbing up the earth to get at roots or worms, and some 
use it for making in the earth the holes in which they live. Can 
you mention any of these ? The hedgehog and mole ; both these 
animals have pointed snouts full of muscles, which make them 
very strong. What has the pig at the end of its snout ? This 
ring of gristle helps it in grubbing up the earth. What animal 



THE HUMAN BODY. 303 

has a much longer snout than a pig ? What is it called ? How- 
can the elephant use its trunk ? It can twist it about in every 
direction. The elephant's trunk is most useful to it. Upon what 
does the elephant feed ? It feeds on vegetables, on the grass and 
herbs that grow on the ground, and also on boughs of trees. Now 
look at this picture of an elephant. Do you think it could put its 
mouth down to the ground ? or could it raise it so as to bite off 
branches ? No ; it could not. You can tell, then, the use of its 
long flexible trunk. "With its trunk it uproots the grass and herbs 
on the ground, and snaps off the young twigs from the trees above, 
and then carries them to its mouth. And how does it drink ? It 
draws water into its trunk, and conveys it to its mouth. Tell me 
what use we make of the nose. Tell me the different uses ani- 
mals make of it. What do you find, when the nose has to be 
used for other purposes than smelling ? That God fits it for its 
special use by changing its form. 

Summary. — Position of the nose ; its parts and uses ; the 
diversity of its form in different animals. 

11. The Mouth, and the Faculty of Speech. 

What is under the nose ? What do you call the edges of the 
mouth ? How many lips have you ? What do you call the lip 
nearest the nose ? What the other ? What is the color of the 
lips ? What can we do with our lips ? Say what we do when 
we smile ? How do we use our lips to show that we love a per- 
son ? How do we use our lips in eating ? Tell me the different 
parts of the mouth. What is there within the lips ? What color 
are the teeth ? Of what are they made ? What use is there in 
their being so hard ? What are the parts of a tooth ? The 
naked part of a tooth is called the crown ; the part fixed in the 
jaw is called the fang or root. What differences do you observe 
in the teeth ? How many kinds of teeth have we ? Those near- 
est the lips are called the front or cutting teeth. What sort of an 
edge have they ? A sharp edge like that of a knife or scissors. 
What use is there in their having such an edge ? How many 
cutting teeth have we ? What sort of teeth come next to the 



304 



THE HUMAN BODY. 



cutting teeth? Pointed teeth. These are called the eyeteeth. 
How many have we ? And what other teeth have we ? Those 
at the back of the jaw are called double teeth, or grinders, because 
we grind our food between them. In what are our teeth set ? 
How many jaws have we ? What are the two jaws called ? 
"Which jaw do we move when we eat ? How do we move it ? 
What covers the jaws ? The two cheeks. What animals have 
large teeth projecting out of their mouths ? . Which of the teeth 
are very large in some animals ? They are called tusks ; such ani- 
mals generally use them either in defending themselves, or in destroy- 
ing their prey. What sort of teeth have dogs or cats ? * Lions, 
tigers, and wolves have the same kind of sharp-pointed teeth. 
Now call to mind what we said about the feet of these animals. 
They are fitted to catch their prey. What, then, is the use of 
their having sharp-pointed teeth ? To tear the flesh of their prey. 
What kind of feet have cows, horses, &c. ? What do these ani- 
mals feed upon ? Did you ever see a cow lying down and chew- 
ing ? How did it move its lower jaw ? From side to side. What 
kind of teeth has it ? And by thus moving its jaw from side to 
side it bruises its vegetable food between its great flat grinders, 
till it becomes a soft pulp. What part of an animal should we 
examine in order to find out what kind of food it eats ? God, 
who gives to every animal the desire for the particular food that 
is suitable for it, gives it also the means of procuring that food, 
and proper teeth wherewith to masticate or chew it. When have 
we no teeth ? What food has God provided for infants ? Why, 
then, do infants not need teeth ? What is there in the middle of 
the mouth, within the teeth ? In what do we use the tongue ? 
In talking and eating. We not only use the tongue in talking ; 
but when we eat, we use it in bringing the food between the teeth, 
and in helping us to swallow. What use do some animals make 
of their tongue ? f What do you call that which the dog does 

* If the children cannot answer such questions from their own knowledge, 
they should not be told ; but a cat or dog should be brought in for the next les- 
son, or they should be directed to observe the animal at home. 

t Some animals use their tongues as an organ of prehension. The cow gath- 
ers the grass into its mouth with its tongue, and the cameleopard twists the 
tongue round the boughs of trees. 



THE HUMAN BODY. 305 

when he drinks ? "What other animals use their tongues in lap- 
ping ? "What kind of tongue has the cat ? What can we do 
with the mouth ? For what purposes do we open the mouth ? 
To eat, drink, speak, laugh, gape, scream, sing, whistle, &c. What 
parts of the mouth do we use in speaking ? Utter some words, 
and observe. We open and shut the mouth. And how do we use 
the tongue and lips ? Observe what we do in sounding each of the 
five vowels, and tell me. Observe what we do in sounding the dif- 
ferent consonants, and tell me.* Can we utter a sound by merely- 
opening the mouth, and putting it in different positions ? Try and 
find out what more we need to do. To whom has God given the 
power of speaking ? Tell me the best mode of using this power. 
When do we make a bad use of this gift of God ? What do we 
call those who cannot speak ? Tell me the different sounds that 
animals make with their mouths. What sound do we make when 
we are happy ? What when we are in pain ? What sound is a 
sign of mirth ? 

Summary. — Eepeating the names of all the parts of the 
mouth, and their position ; the diversity in the teeth of animals, 
as well as in their food, to suit their habits ; how we use our 
mouths in speaking, eating, &c. 

12. The Chin, and Cheeks. 

Where is the chin ? What is the shape of the chin ? Tell 
me where the cheeks are ? What is the general color of the 
cheeks ? When is the color of the cheeks lost ? What is' the 
substance of the cheeks ? 

13. The JEJars, and Sense of Hearing. 

Where are the ears placed ? How many ears have we ? 
Tell me the parts of the ear.f The lower part is called the 

* This may be made a very interesting lesson, and lead the children to the 
habit of observing the details of the process by which they produce certain 
sounds, thus cultivating perception of the relation between cause and effect. 

t The teacher must here, as in all such lessons, let the children point to the 
part before its name is told them. 



306 THE HUMAJST BODY. 

flap ; the edge that curls over it is called the hem. Whither does 
the inner canal lead ? It is a passage which leads to the drum of 
the ear, so called because it has a skin or membrane stretched 
tightly over it, as the parchment is over a drum "What do you 
observe in the ears of animals ? What is their most common 
shape ? Like that of a trumpet. This is the best shape for col- 
lecting sound and conducting it to the passage of the ear. Did 
you ever see a poor hare or rabbit, when the dogs were chasing 
it ? What was then the direction of its ears ? They were turned 
backward. What was it trying to hear ? Those animals that are 
liable to be pursued by others have their ears turning backward, 
that they may hear whatever may be coming after them. What 
kind of ear would best suit those animals that have to pursue 
their prey ? And so Ave find that lions, tigers, cats, &c, have 
their ears pointing forward, that they may hear anything before 
them. What does all this teach us of God ? Who made all ani- 
mals ? And if God has taken such care for the comfort of ani- 
mals, how much must He be displeased with those who hurt and 
tease dumb creatures.* What is the use of the ear ? What 
sounds do we hear easily V what with difficulty ? What do you 
call people who cannot hear ? Why is it a misfortune to be deaf? 
When do we make a good use of the sense of hearing ? 

Summary. — The parts of the ear, and its position ; how fitted 
for receiving sound ; peculiarities in the ears of different animals ; 
the uses of the ear. 

14. The Hair and Head. 

What covers the back and the top of the head ? What is 
there beneath the hair ? What under the skin ? Have any ani- 
mals besides man hair on their bodies ? Where is the hair of other 
animals ? What is the use of hair to animals ? What can man 
do to supply the place of a covering of hair ? Is the hair of all 
animals alike ? What difference, then, do you find in the hair of 
animals ? What do you call the hairy covering of sheep ? What 

* A teacher of infants, while improving every opportunity of conveying 
moral lessons, should take care to avoid introducing either tbese, or passages of 
Scripture, when they do not naturally arise out of the subject. 



THE HUMAN BODY. 307 

kind of hair has the pig ? what kind the cat ? &c. Name the 
various kinds of these coverings. Hair, wool, bristles, fur. What 
is the shape of the head ? Are the heads of animals of the same 
shape as ours ? "What difference do you see ? Look at this pic- 
ture of a dog, a pig, &c. What makes the heads of these animals 
less round than ours ? The nose and mouth stand out more. 

15. The Neck. 

Upon what are our heads placed ? What is the form of our 
neck ? The neck is like a pillar to support the head ; but what is 
it in front ? It is a passage. There are two passages in the neck. 
You know very well the use of one of these. But, in addition to 
the throat, which is the passage for conveying the food to the 
stomach, there is another called the windpipe, through which we 
breathe, and which conveys air to the lungs. 

16. The Bones. 

Now feel the bones below the throat. That in front is called 
the breastbone. Feel the bones that stretch from the throat to the 
shoulders. These are called the collar bones. Now feel the bones 
on each side of the body in front. These are called the ribs. 
Where are the ribs ? What is . the shape of the ribs ? They 
curve, and form a hollow for the lungs by which we breathe, and 
for the heart, and for the stomach into which the food is received. 
Feel the bone that goes down the middle of the back. It is called 
the spine, or backbone. Where is the backbone ? Can we bend 
the backbone ? How is the backbone formed ? It is formed of 
a great number of small bones, most beautifully joined together. 
If our back were formed of one single bone, and were solid like 
this stick, could we bend it ? Can we now bend the back as we 
may require ? What advantage is there in the backbone being 
formed of many small bones? What is the use of the backbone ? 
What is the direction of the backbone ? In what position is it 
when we lie down ? In what direction is the backbone of most 
animals ? 

Tell me now the names of the chief bones of the body as you 



308 THE HUMAN BODY. 

have mentioned them. To what part of the body do they be« 
lono- ? "What have we besides a trunk ? How many limbs have 
we ? "What do our bones form altogether ? The skeleton, or 
bony framework which sustains all the rest of our person. 

17. The Blood. 

"What is the liquid that flows through the body ? What is 
the color of our blood ? What is our condition when the blood no 
longer flows through our bodies ? In what «does the blood flow ? 
Listen to me, and I will tell you about the blood, and the journey 
it makes. It comes from the heart, and travels to all parts of the 
body, nourishing every part ; it then returns to the heart, but on 
its way it has become weakened by giving off strength to every 
part of the frame. As it returns to the heart, just before it enters 
it, it receives the nutriment taken up from the food, which restores 
much of the vigor it had lost. It is then sent from the right side 
of the heart into the lungs, where, by breathing, it is further puri- 
fied, and returning to the left side of the heart, bright and pure, it 
is again sent on its wonderful course, visiting every part of the 
body, to give nourishment and strength. As long as we live, it 
regularly flows on, without our thinking of it or troubling our- 
selves about it ; and when it ceases to flow, we die. The food we 
take supplies nourishment to the blood. (The children should be 
questioned upon all this information.) Now, which of you can 
tell me about the blood, and its journey through the body ? Do 
you know what liquid flows through plants in somewhat the same 
manner, giving them life and nourishment ? It is called the sap. 

Now you have learned something about your body ; tell me 
who formed it. Yes; and David truly says, in the 139th Psalm, 
14th verse, "I will praise Thee, for I am fearfully and wonderfully 
made." Repeat these words. What does David declare about 
God ? What does he say he himself will do ? What does he 
mean by praise ? God made us, and not we ourselves, and there- 
fore we ought to praise Him. But He also takes care of us. If 
He should cease to care for us, what would become of us ? Do 
you wish Him to take care of you ? If you wished some one to 



THE HUMAN BODY. 309 

do anything for you, what should you on your part do ? May we 
ask God for that we want ? But how do we know that He will 
hear us if we pray to Him ? Give me some text from the Bible, 
the "Word of God, to show that He has promised to hear us when 
we pray to Him. 

Summary. — The color, action, and office of the blood ; the 
changes it undergoes ; its importance ; how its waste is supplied ; 
what feelings the consideration of our bodies ought to produce. 

SKETCH FOR A LESSON. 

On the Difference betiveen the Hand and the Foot. 

1. Draw the attention of the children to the difference in the 
position of these two organs ; the hand being placed at the upper 
part of the body at the end of the arm, and in a line with it ; the 
foot at the lower part of the body, at an angle with the leg. 
Again, the difference as to form ; the hand thin, the palm capable 
of being formed into a hollow cup ; and termiating in four long, 
flexible, slender fingers, ranged in a row, with an opposing thumb 
which can be brought to meet any one of them, so as to pick up 
or grasp objects. The sense of touch, also, as being so exquisitely 
delicate in the fingers, enabling women to do the finest needle- 
work, and men to carry on the most delicate operations. The 
foot thick and stiff ; the instep arched for strength ; the sole of the 
foot broad and flat ; the toes short and thick, the whole five being 
arranged in one plane. 

2. The use of the hand, to lay hold of things ; that of the 
foot, to support the body when in an upright position, or when 
moving or standing. 

3. How both these organs are fitted by their position and form 
for their different offices. The hand, by its thinness and flexibility, 
being capable of being formed into a hollow ; its long, delicate 
fingers opposed to the thumb, forming a complete organ for grasp- 
ing and touching ; the foot, by its thinness, flatness, and the 
breadth of the sole, by the muscular power of the instep, and by 
its position, fitted for its office of supporting the body in an erect 
posture. 



COUKSE OF LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

The natural history of the animal creation furnishes abundant 
materials for instruction. First, that of a religious character ; for 
the wisdom and goodness of the Creator are manifestly proclaimed 
in the wonderful construction and beautiful adaptation of animals 
to circumstances, evidencing design in a manner which no one can 
gainsay. Secondly, that of a moral character ; for, by awakening 
interest in animals, kind and humane feelings are promoted, which 
those who have witnessed the pleasure even very young children 
take in tormenting creatures over which they have any power will 
acknowledge to be an object of no small importance. Thirdly, 
that of an intellectual character ; for the faculties of observation, 
of comparison, and of conception, are brought into exercise, whilst 
reason takes its part in tracing cause and effect, and drawing in- 
ferences and conclusions from facts. 

In the First Step, the perceptive faculty is exercised on the 
general appearance and external parts of animals. The teacher 
must not seek either to promote precocious development, or to 
store the memory with information, but simply to direct aright the 
activity that exists ; to form, and not to fill the mind. 

In the Second Step, not only the perceptive, but also the con- 
ceptive faculty is exercised. The teacher directs attention to the 
actions of animals and their mode of life, as well as to their forms, 
parts, &c. Subjects of lessons are no longer limited to native and 
domestic animals, but include such as are foreign j at least the 
more prominent of these. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. FIEST STEP. 311 

In the Third Step, the reasoning faculty is exercised. The 
teacher leads her class, already somewhat acquainted with the 
structure and habits of animals, to see the wonderful adaptation 
of one to the other. Sometimes this is best shown by comparison 
of individual animals. 

In the Fourth Step, the faculty of generalization is exercised. 
The work of the last Step, which is consideration of adaptation, 
is extended to classes of animals. More general comparisons are 
made. 

Moral lessons should constantly be drawn from these subjects, 
not with cold, dry formalism, but in such a manner as to interest 
and to improve. In the lower steps, the object of the teacher 
will be chiefly to excite feelings of humanity and sympathy for 
the lower animals. In the higher steps, the thoughtful teacher 
cannot help referring to the wisdom and goodness of the great 
Creator and Adapter. 

All that can be done to help teachers in carrying out this sub- 
ject, is to furnish them with principles, give a few patterns of 
model sketches and exercises, and to suggest hints. But if the 
mind of the teacher be barren and uninventive, the instruction 
will be dull and wearisome. 



FIEST STEP. 

I. — General conversation about an animal. Observation of its 
most prominent parts, as the children advance. 
II.-^-More accurate observation ; referring to, 

1. Parts, names, and number and uses of these. 

2. Distinction of parts, as principal and secondary. 

3. Position of parts. 

4. Characteristic parts, or those which especially distinguish 
the animal. 

Any one or two of these points may be taken up in a lesson, 
as the subject may be best adapted' to work them out. But as a 
general rule, the teacher will commence the Step by working out 
Point 1, and conclude it by working out Point 2. 



312 LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — FIKST STEP. 

In preparing students to teach this subject, the teacher of 
Method may begin by directing their attention to the pattern les- 
son on the " Hen and Chickens." 

Let them examine the sketch, note what ideas are taken up, 
in what order, and form a corresponding lesson on the " Cat and 
Battens." 

1. Hen and Chickens. (Conversational Lesson.) 

1. Present a picture. Let the children examine it, and deter- 
mine what the animals are ; what doing ; what the hen is to the 
chickens ; the chickens to the hen ; what the hen does for the 
chickens (scratches up food for them all day, watches over them, 
defends them from any dog or hawk that threatens them). This 
gives her trouble, and exposes her to danger. Why she does it ? 
She loves her chickens. Children to say what their mothers do 
for them, and why ? Refer to the goodness of God, which in- 
spires mothers with so much affection. 

2. Children compare the hen and chickens as to their ways, 
&c. The hen is active, industrious, intent on supplying the wants 
of the chickens. The chickens are weak, helpless, and can do 
nothing for themselves. How they act on the approach of dan- 
ger. How the hen behaves under the same circumstances. How 
loving she is ; how brave ; how unselfish. How we should feel 
and behave toward the hen. 

2. The Horse. (For Parts, their Names, and Number.) 



1 . A horse has legs, 
body, head, eyes, ears, 
mane, tail, and hoofs. 

2. A horse has a 
long round body, long 
thin legs, a handsome 
flowing tail, flowing 
mane, and upright 
pointed ears. 



1. Children name the parts when point- 
ed to, and point to them when named. 
(S. R.) 

2. Children led to talk about the parts ; 
their number and kind. Teacher gives 
terms required to express ideas ; as, hand- 
some ; flowing, by comparing the tail and 
mane of the horse with the tail and mane 
of the lion. Pointed, brought out by 
comparing the two ends of a cut pencil. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — FIRST STEP. 



513 



3. The horse has 
one head, one body, 
one tail, two eyes, two 
ears, four legs, and four 
feet. 



"Which end most resembles the ears of a 
horse ? Upright, by holding the pencil in 
different directions. 

3. Children referred to the parts they 
have before noticed. Teacher bids them to 
name some part of which the horse has 
but one ; some part of which it has two ; 
whether they can find any part of which it 
has exactly three ? If not, let them find 
parts of which it has four. 

4. Children say who made the horse. 
How He would like to have us treat it ? 
To name any ways in which they can 
show it kindness. 



4. "We should never 
treat the horse unkind- 
ly, but always be good 
and gentle to it. 

Summary. — Teacher asks each child individually to name a 
part of the horse. Goes around the class a second time, asking 
each the number of part he names ; i. e., the child who says, 
" The horse has an eye," should say how many eyes. Third time 
each child is required to describe any part named by the teacher. 

Students in training to construct a sketch on " The Mouse," 
as " The Horse." 

3. The Sparrow. (Parts.) 

I. — Principal and secondary parts. II. — Position of parts. 

I. — 1. Principal Parts. — These are, head, body, wings, and 
legs. (S. K.) Call on a child to touch a large part of the bird. 
When body and wings have been found, cover them up, that the 
remaining parts may be distinguished. 

2. Secondary Parts. — (a) Of the head — eyes and beak. (2>) 
Of the body — -feathers, bach, breast, and tail, (c) Of the legs — 
feet and claivs. (S. E.) A child to find a part of the head; as, 
the eye. How many eyes ? What the bird does with them ? 
The beak. How many parts ? Its use ? What children have, 
instead of a beak ? What, instead of the feathers ? Why the 
bird wants feathers ? &c. 

II. — Position. — 1. Principal. The head is at one end of the 
body ; the tail at the other end. The wings are on either side, and 
the legs underneath, (S. R.) 
14 



314 LESSONS ON ANIMALS. FIRST STEP. 

2. Secondary. The eyes are on either side of the head. The 
beak is in front of the head, and below the eyes. The back is 
the upper part of the body, the breast the under part. The feet are 
below the legs. The toes are at the end of each foot — three be- 
fore, and one behind. The feathers are all over the bird, except 
the legs, beak, and eyes. (S. R.) Children to notice where the 
head is. Teacher give the proper expression, if needed. Ques- 
tion thus : What is at one end of the body ? What at the other ? 
Then reverse the questions ; as, Where is the head ? Where are 
the legs ? the feathers ? Children distinguish the unfeathered 
parts. 

Students construct sketch on " The House-fly," as " The Spar- 
row." 

The teacher, having led the class in training to decide on the 
characteristic parts which are written on the board, requires them 
to supply the method. 

4. The Duck. {For Characteristic Parts.) 

Matter. — 1. The duck has feathers of many colors — green, 
blue, brown, white, and black. 

2. The duck has thick, glossy plumage. 

3. The duck has a flat, boat-shaped body. 

4. The duck has strong yellow legs, placed far back. 

5. The duck has broad, webbed, yellow feet. 

6. The duck has a broad, flat-toothed, yellow bill, rounded at 
the end. 

Method. — 1. Let children select colored cards to match the 
feathers of the duck, and name the colors. 

2. Unless there is a stuffed specimen, and not merely a pic- 
ture, omit this. With a specimen, bring out thick, by observation, 
and glossy, by comparison with the feathers of an owl. 

3. Present a card-board cylinder. Children bend it so as to 
represent the general shape of the body. Give term fat. Draw 
an oblong to represent shape, and ask what object they see on the 
water nearly of the same shape ? 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. FIRST STEP. 



315 




4. Measure the diagram from end to end. Mark it in the 
middle. 




Children to mark where the legs are placed. 




5. Compare with feet of a hen. Give the term welled. 

6. Compare with the beak of a hen. Give the term toothed. 
Summary. — Teacher names the parts. Each child in turn 

gives a term which describes the part named. 

Students may construct a sketch on " The Hen," as " The 
Duck." 



Suljects for Lessons at this Step. 



A Dog. 
A Cat. 
A Cow. 
A Sheep. 
A Horse. 
A Goat. 
A Hen. 



A Cat and Kittens. 

A Cow and Calf. 

A Sheep and Lambs. 

A Donkey in Draught. 

A Pig. 

A Duck. 

A Hen and Chickens. 



316 LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — SECOND STEP. 

A Cock. A Mare and Foal. 

A Rabbit. A Goose. 

A Mouse. A Rat. 

A Newfoundland Dog. A Guinea Pig. 

SECOND STEP. 

I. — Characteristic Parts continued. 
II. — Mode of Life. 

1. Habitation. 

2. Food. 

3. Actions ; especially characteristic actions, including 

Sounds. 

III. — Disposition ; involving special traits of character or in- 
telligence. Lessons of this kind are best worked out by anec- 
dotes. Moral lessons should be derived from them. 

IV. — Uses of the animal, living or dead ; our duties with 
respect to it. The uses to be considered are those which have 
direct reference to man. The uses of animals in the economy of 
Nature is a subject in advance of the Step. When the lesson is 
on a domestic animal, it should not close without asking the chil- 
dren what they can do for the comfort and pleasure of the crea- 
ture. 

V. — Comparative size. 

As was the case in the First Step, any of these points may e 
taken as the subject of a lesson. Thus : In the first exercises, we 
have Characteristic Parts and Actions, with Uses ; in the second, 
Sounds ; in the third, Characteristic Parts and Traits ; in the 
fourth, Form, and Use as depending on the food of the animal ; 
in the fifth, Mode of Life. The same, or other animals, would be 
chosen to bring out the remaining points. 

The teacher of method, in commencing the Step, may begin 
with a pattern sketch on 

1. The Cow. 

I. Parts. — Bring a picture of a cow before the children, who, 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. SECOND STEP. 317 

after describing its general appearance, according to the picture, 
point out what distinguishes the cow from other animals : A 
square bulky body, thin legs, broad head, curved horns, straight 
back, rounded sides, dewlap, covering of short hair, long slender 
tail with a tuft at the end, and cloven hoofs. ("W". B.) 

II. Actions. — Let the children mention anything a cow can 
do • then leave them to make out a list of actions proper to a cow. 
Gathering the grass together with the tongue when feeding; 
chewino- the cud, lying down meanwhile ; tossing with the horns ; 
kicking ; lashing its sides with the tail ; whisking off flies wth its 
tail ; lowing ; bending the fore legs first in lying down ; standing 
in the water. Children to say under what circumstances each of 
these actions is performed. 

III. Uses. — Children find out all the uses of the cow. She 
gives milk ; we eat her flesh ; in some countries used for the 
plough and for the draught ; her hair is used in making mortar ; 
her hoofs make glue ; her horns to make cups and knife handles ; 
her fat to make tallow. Children say in what ways the cow is 
useful while living, and when dead. Who gave us this useful crea- 
ture ? How we ought to treat His gift ? "What the cow likes ? 
What she ought to have ? &c. 

Students may construct a sketch on " The Dog," as " The 
Cow." 

Exercises on this pattern should be continued until the stu- 
dents can readily select and arrange the points each involves. 
"The Pig," "The Elephant," "The Cat," "The Lion," "The 
.Kobin," and "The Ostrich," are good subjects. 

2. The following general directions, involving the heads of an 
exercise on the Sounds of Animals, are given, to which the stu- 
dents may supply the Matter and the Method : 

Heads. — I. Enumerate sounds made by different kinds of 
Birds. Draw a general conclusion from a consideration of these. 

II. — Enumerate sounds made by different kinds of Beasts. 
Draw general conclusion. 



318 LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — SECOND STEP. 

III. — Enumerate sounds made by Reptiles. Confine your 
attention to the sounds made by vertebrated animals. 
Students construct sketch on " Sounds of Insects." 

3. The Parrot. (Characteristic Parts. Characteristic Traits.) 

1. Children determine how they know a parrot. By its green 
or gray plumage, with a mixture of red ; its curved and curious 
beak, the upper part loose ; its strong legs ; the arrangement of 
its toes — two before, and two behind ; also by its power of learn- 
ing to talk. 

2. Children name the birds that can be taught to speak : 
Raven, magpie, claw, jay, starling. (W. B.) How birds learn 
to speak. "Whether any one in the list speaks as well as the par- 
rot ? How much of what it says does the parrot understand ? 
How children can talk, and learn their lessons, just like parrots ? 
"Whether it is right to do so ? 

Lead children to see that, as God has given us a power of 
reflection, not possessed by birds, we ought not to speak without 
thinking. 

Students construct a sketch on " The Pheasant," as " The 
Parrot." 

4. Lesson on the Sheep. (For Uses.) 

1. Form of the animal's body. Large trunk compared with 
slender neck, and small head. Thick covering noticed. 

2. Uses of the animal to man for food and clothing. 

3. Food of the animal — grass, that grows plentifully every- 
where, even on the tops of high hills, where corn will not grow. 

4. The blessing this animal is to man. The goodness of God 
in giving it to him. 

5. What the sheep likes. What we can do for it. 
Students may construct a sketch on "The Ass," as "The 

Sheep." 

After a sufficient number of individual lessons, a more general 
lesson may be given. In the one that follows, the Matter is given, 
that the students may write out the Method : 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — SECOND STEP. 319 

5. Animals. (Ifode of Life.) 

1. "Where living ? 

2. How moving ? 

Matter. — 1. God made animals and plants. He made the 
animals to move about, and the plants to keep in one place. 

2. God made some animals to live and move in the air some 
on the earth, and some in the water. 

3. To those animals that live in the air, God gave wings, and 
they fly ; to those that live in the water, He gave fins, and they 
swim ; to those that live on the earth. He gave feet, and they 
walk. 

■ Comparative Sizes of Animals. 

As the Natural History prints are not constructed at all with 
reference to their comparative sizes, to guard against any wrong 
impression .that may be formed by the children, it is well to call 
their attention to this point. 

For this purpose, it is desirable to have a chart to show this, 
such as those sold by the Hotne and Colonial Institution. 

The teachers of the children may exercise them in finding : 

1. Ten of the largest animals. 

2. Ten of the smallest animals. 

3. Six not so large as the first ten, nor so small as the second 
ten. 

4. Ten animals of various sizes, to be arranged in order, be- 
ginning with the largest. 

5. The same, beginning with the smallest. 

6. Animals nearly the size of a horse ; as, cow, bear, &c. 

7. " " a sheep ; as, goat, &c. 

8. " " a cat ; as, rabbit. 

9. " " a rat ; as, guinea pig. 

10. " " an elephant ; as, the rhinoceros. 

It were better, perhaps, that the lessons on size should not 
'come in series. They will make an agreeable variety if inter- 
spersed with other lessons on animals. In each lesson, as the ani- 
mals are chosen, their names should be placed on the board. 



320 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THIRD STEP. 



When the children can readily give examples from the chart, they 
may be required to do so from memory. 

Subjects for Further Lessons. 

All native animals that are familiar, and a few of the more 
prominent foreign animals, as lion, elephant, &c, may be taken. 
Lessons from Scripture Natural History may be included. 



EXAMPLES. 

Raven, 

Serpent, 

Camel, 

Fish, 

Dove, 

Lion, 

Ass, 

Sheep, 

Bee, 

Eagle. 



See Religious Instruction, 
Part 2. 



THIRD STEP. 



In this Step the instruction is more systematic than in the 
former ones. The teacher selects her subjects from Class Mam- 
malia, with a view to classification in the succeeding Step. Al- 
though the attention of the children is not directed to the animals 
as forming different groups, they are led to trace the gradual 
change that takes place in their organization ; fitting them for 
different habits, propensities, and localities. The faculty of com- 
parison, as well as that of simple observation, is exercised. 

In considering structure and habits with special reference to 
the adaptation of the first to the last, it is often well to begin with 
the mode of life, leaving the children to judge as to the kind of 
structure this renders necessary. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THIKD STEP. 321 

1. Lesson on the Bat. (Point — To Show the Structure of the 
Wings.) 

1. Bid a child touch different parts of his own body, to lead 
the rest to distinguish the head, trunk, and limbs. Children state 
the number of limbs in a man. How terminating ? Other ani- 
mals that have four limbs. How terminating ? Generally in feet 
only. Give the term quadrupeds. "Whether man is a quadruped ? 
Why not ? By comparison with different animals, show that only 
man has two hands and two feet. 

2. Refer to a creature having four limbs, the hinder terminat- 
ing with feet, the fore formed into wings. Children will think of 
a bird. May be told that there is such a creature amongst beasts. 
Produce a specimen. Direct attention to the wing, and explain 
that an equal number of bones form the arm of man and the 
wing of a bat. Children to find out the bones in their own arms. 

(W. B.) 

« 

1. From the shoulder to the elbow. 

2. From the elbow to the wrist. 

3. The hand bones. 

4. The thumb bones. 

5. The finger bones. 

Draw a diagram of the arm, numbering the parts ; then a dia- 
gram of the bat's wing, numbering corresponding parts, which 
children observe and compare. 

1. Longest bone in man ; shortest in the bat. 

2. Shorter in man ; very long in the bat. 

3. Scarcely appear in the bat. 

4. In the bat terminating as a nail, serving as a hook. 

5. In the bat thin, and extremely elongated, with extended 
skin between. (W. B., in opposite columns.) 

Lead children to observe, that they find no new part in the 
wing, but an accommodation of common parts to special circum- 
stances. Children to say why the bat has wings at all — (it lives 
in the air). What its food is. What it can find in the air. 
Children may examine the beak, and observe how it is adapted 
14* 



322 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THIRD STEP. 



for catching insects. Tell them that at one time of the year the 
bat seeks the hollow of a tree, or goes into the steeple of a church, 
because torpid ; remains motionless ; folds its wings around it, and 
hangs to some projection by its hook. Children to say when this 
would happen ? And why then ? "Who gave the bat its wings ? 
Whether any one can suggest any improvement ? Let children 
notice the size of the wing, extending down the side to the feet. 
Why a smaller one would not do ? Skin — why thin ? Why 
tough ? Color — corresponding with the body ; appears black at 
dusk. " Why ? Let us praise His wisdom, who gave the bat its 
wings, and of whom we can say, " He hath done all things well." 

2. The Hedgehog. 



1. — 1. We will 
speak of a little ani- 
mal called a hedgehog. 
It lives in this country, 
under hedges or in gar- 
dens; sleeps during the 
day ; takes its food at 
night, and becomes tor- 
pid in the winter. 

2. It eats insects, 
worms, and the soft 
parts of the roots of 
trees. 

3. It burrows under 
ground. 

II. — 1. The snout is 
hard and bony ; claws 
very sharp ; legs very 
short. 



I. — 1. Information given, 
children fail to supply it. 



where the 



2. From the places which it frequents, 
children to infer what its food would be. 



3. Children to say what parts it must 
have in order to burrow — (snout and 
claws). 

II. — 1. Facts discovered by observation 
of the specimen now produced. Chil- 
dren judge whether a creature employed 
in scraping away earth with its claws could 
act better with long or with short legs. 
In order to this, let the children imitate 
the action of scraping, first with the arms 
stretched out, and then with the elbows 
bent. They will decide in which way they 
could work the longer. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THIRD STEP. 



323 



2. Its back is cov- 
ered with spines. 

3. "When in danger, 
it presents the spines, 
and conceals the un- 
protected parts. 

4. The tail is very 
short. 

III. — Summary. 



2. Children to say whether the legs are 
suited for running. How the hedgehog is 
to be defended from its enemies. 

3. Children discover why the spines 
need not cover the whole body. 



4. Children observe the fact, and, from 
what they know, find out the advantage. 

III. — Children give from memory, first, 
the habits ; secondly, parts ; thirdly, state 
how adapted. 



3. Comparison of Cat with Dog. 

I. Resemblance. — Both are quadrupeds ; have paws and claws : 
three kinds of teeth ; eat flesh. 

II. Differences. 

Structure. 

DOG. 



1. The dog's head is pointed. 

2. The dog's teeth are large, 
fiat, and rounded. 

3. The dog's claws not retrac- 
tile. 

4. The dog's hairy covering. 

5. The dog's skin with few 
pores. 

6. The dog's legs usually long. 



CAT. 

1. The cat's head is round. 

2. The cat's teeth are small, 
sharp, and pointed. 

3. The cat's claws retractile. 

4. The cat's furry covering. 

5. The cat's skin porous. 

6. The cat's legs short. 



Habits. 



1. The dog prefers meat in a 
putrid state. 

2. The dog eats any flesh he 
finds. 

3. The dog runs down its 
prey. 

4. The dog secures it by teeth. 

5. The dog runs. 

6. The dog has good scent. 

7. The dog howls, and, when 
domesticated, barks. 



1. The cat likes fresh meat. 

• 2. The cat, in a state of nature, 
eats only what it kills for itself. 

3. The cat watches for and 
springs on its prey. 

4. The cat secures it by claws. 

5. The cat leaps and climbs. 

6. The cat has good sight, 

7. The cat mews. 



324: LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THIKD STLP. 



8. The dog bites when angry. 

9. The dog wags the tail when 
pleased. 

10. The dog licks' the hand to 
show affection. 



8. The cat scratches when 
angry. 

9. The cat purrs when pleased. 

10. The cat rubs the head 
against you. 



Children might also distinguish between habits natural to the 
animal, and habits acquired by domestication, rearranging the mat- 
ter accordingly. 

The three previous sketches on " The Bat," "The Hedgehog," 
and the " Comparison of Cat with Dog," are given as examples 
of the manner in which the succeeding lessons may be treated in 
practice. 

MAMMALS. 

The Monkey. 

First lead the children to describe the monkey, helping them 
by showing stuffed specimens and pictures, and by bringing to 
their, recollection the living animals they may have seen. 

Points to which their attention should be directed : The head 
approaching in form nearer to that of man than the head of any 
other animal, in consequence of the mouth projecting but little. 
The slender, slight figure, adapted to agile motion ; the long flex- 
ible limbs, terminated by hands fitted for grasping — that is, hav- 
ing four fingers, with a thumb which can be brought opposite to 
each of them. They are called four-handed animals.* 

Then their habits. They live in the woods and forests of 
warm countries ; they feed on nuts and fruits ; they spring from 
bough to bough, and from tree to tree, with surprising agilit} r . 

Next lead the children to consider how their form and organ- 
ization fit them for this arboreal life. That they derive the power 
of springing and rapid motion from their slender, flexible limbs ; 
and their facility in grasping from the form of their limbs and 
teeth, aided often by the tail. 

Consider next their disposition : cunning, intelligent, ridicu- 
lously imitative, lively, restless, chattering, and quarrelsome. 
' * Quackumana. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS, THI1JD STEP. 325 

In conclusion, lead the children to infer from the facts brought 
out in the lesson, viz., that the monkey dwells among trees ; is 
peculiarly fitted for springing and grasping, and for feeding on 
hard vegetable food, that the Being who made it, and fixed its 
habitation, is as benevolent and kind as He is powerful and wise ; 
that He is our God, and we are His creatures. 

The Orang-outang. 

First, its general appearance and form. It approaches nearer 
to a human being, in form and attitude, than any other animal, 
and can maintain an erect posture, though, owing to the different 
position of its hinder limbs, and the fact of its extremities being 
better fitted for prehension than support, it walks with difficulty.* 
The fore limbs are of a great length, the hinder limbs shorter, all 
slender and flexible, and, from the peculiar construction of the 
joints, possessing great freedom of motion. The skin, except 
that of the face and palms of the hands, is covered with long, 
coarse hair. They are less noisy and tricky than monkeys, but 
equally intelligent and sagacious. 

The monkeys of America might form the subject of a separate 
lesson. They are remarkable, as possessing in their cheek-pouches 
a most singular provision for enabling them to keep a store of 
food ; and in their long, prehensive tails, by which they can main- 
tain the firmest grasp. With these they also link themselves to- 
gether in a chain, and when they wish to pass to trees at a dis- 
tance, they swing this chain with a sudden jerk, so that the last 
of them catches hold of the tree they wish to reach. Their throats 
also are curiously formed, enabling them to utter a most terrific 
yell. They often assemble together in great numbers, and join in 
a tremendous howling. 

In conclusion, the children should give a description of the 
monkey ; pointing out in what it resembles man, and in what 
points he is altogether its superior. 

* In such short sketcbes as these the subject only of the lesson can be sug- 
gested. The teacher must get up the information required, and collect illustra- 
tive anecdotes from books, such as " The Class Mammalia," published by the 
London Tract Society, and "the Menageries" of the Library of Entertaining 
Knowledge ; also Smellie's " Philosophy of Natural History." 



326 LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THIKD STEP. 

The Mole. 

After a few questions to arouse the children's recollection of 
the characteristics of the animals already examined, they may be 
told, if they do not know the fact, that the abode of the mole is 
under ground. What, then, should we expect as to its conforma- 
tion ? That it is fitted to burrow in the earth, and to live under 
ground. "What organ fits the monkey for its life amid trees ? 
"What limb of the bat did we find accommodated to flying ? 
What enables the hedgehog to burrow in the earth ? In what 
very different places have we found animals living ? In trees, in 
the air, under ground. Which organ is changed to fit each ani- 
mal for its peculiar mode of life ? 

If, then, we would see that the mole is fitted to make its way 
under ground, what ought we especially to examine ? Let the 
children examine the animal, and describe anything they see. Let 
them observe the beautiful adaptation of the fore limbs to the 
work of digging and boring, and lead them to admire this. This 
extremity is broad, strong, and spade-like in shape, being scarcely 
divided into distinct fingers. It is placed obliquely, so that the 
inner edge is the lowest, thus forming a complete instrument for 
throwing the soil behind the animal as it proceeds in its excava- 
tions. The arm on which this hand is placed is thick, strong, and 
muscular. How beautifully is all this contrived for a little mining 
animal ! Continuing the examination, we see other adaptations 
no less admirable than these. The head is pointed ; the end of 
the snout is bone rather than gristle ; the body is of a conical 
form, and the chief strength lies in the fore part. The animal is 
covered with a close, soft, velvety fur,' which does not impede its 
progress while burrowing, and which does not retain the wet and 
mud. As the mole works in darkness, it therefore needs but little 
sight ; and we find its eyes are small, and are protected from in- 
jury by the fur which surrounds them. It is directed in the pur- 
suit of its prey, and in escaping from its enemies, by the senses of 
smelling and hearing, both of which are very acute. Thus, by an 
adaptation of the same organ which in the monkey is a perfect 
hand for grasping, and in the bat a wing for flight, the mole is 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THIRD STEP. 327 

fitted by its Creator to live under ground. But why should its 
habitation be under the earth ? It finds there the food on which 
it subsists, viz., worms, and the grubs of various insects. It be- 
longs to the class called insect-feeders* and, whilst satisfying its 
own cravings, it also renders essential service to the farmer, by 
clearing the soil of creatures that might injure his crops. 

Under the mole-hills, which are often so abundant in fields, 
are the nests of the mole. These are of a conical form, and, 
being carefully lined with vegetable fibre, are made most comfort- 
able for its young, which are reared with great care and tender- 
ness. There are always several galleries leading to the nests, 
which furnish roads of egress and ingress. 

How beautiful an, instance does this animal afford of the won- 
derful instinct implanted in animals, to guide them in the preser- 
vation of life ! Remark to the children that God has given to 
every animal just the particular organ that it needs. The bird has 
wings, and flies ; the monkey has four hands, and grasps the trees. 
Animals do that which God intends them to do. "What lesson 
does this teach us ? To use aright that which God gives us. 
Animals know not who gave them the organs which are so neces- 
sary to them, but we do know who made us. What, then, is our 
duty ? To praise and bless God. 

The Bear. 

First call upon the children to state what organs undergo a 
change to adapt each animal to its peculiar locality and varied 
propensities, and then let them describe the changes they have 
already traced. Present them with a picture of a bear. Call 
upon them to describe its general appearance — it is thick, clumsy, 
and shaggy, with short limbs and a lazy gait. Now in these re- 
spects it is very different from the animals upon which they have 
had instruction. Draw from them all they know as to the habits 
of the bear. Let them examine especially the organs connected 
with the procuring of food, and consequent preservation of life. 
They should observe the manner in which the bear places the 

* Insectivora. 



828 LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THIRD STEP. 

entire sole of the foot on the ground, in which it differs so much 
from the cat tribe, and by which it is enabled to maintain an up- 
right position. Such animals are called, from their mode of walk- 
ing, plantigrade. Do we use our feet thus when we run ? No. 
"When we run, we move on our toes. At what pace do we pro- 
ceed when we place the entire foot on the ground ? Of what 
character, then, must be the motion of the bear ? Might we ex- 
pect a slow-moving animal to feed on vegetables, or on animals ? 
The bear feeds by preference on vegetables, such as roots, leaves, 
and berries ; it is also very fond of honey ; and only when these 
fail, has it recourse to animal food. Its claws are strong, blunt, 
and well fitted for climbing trees, or for digging. It is found in 
northern countries, chiefly in forests or inaccessible rocks, and in 
solitary places. While the double teeth of animals feeding on 
insects are pointed, those of the bear are obtuse. During the 
winter season, the food on which it subsists entirely fails. What 
usually happens under such circumstances ? 

But when that all-wise and gracious Being who rules over all 
creation, fixed the bounds of this animal's habitation, He made 
provision to meet this periodic failure of his food. 

What occurs to the bat under similar circumstances ? In the 
same manner the bear also falls into a deep sleep, during the con- 
tinuance of which it is insensibly nourished by the fat in which it 
is incased. W T hen in the spring it rouses from its slumber, it 
issues forth from its cave thin and gaunt, and so ravenous that it 
will face whatever falls in its way. 

Recapitulate the peculiarities that distinguish the bear and 
adapt its structure to its special propensities, and to the situation 
it occupies. 

The Bear — (continued.} 

The polar bear may be the subject of a second lesson, and the 
children may be led to see in what it differs from the brown bear, 
especially in its color, which is white, with a tinge of yellow ; and 
also in the form of its body, which is much elongated ; and in 
what manner its immense paws, covered underneath by coarse 
hair, give it security in walking over the slippery ice ; and that 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — THIRD STEP. 329 

the layer of fat in which it is incased is the best covering for pre- 
serving it from the injurious effects of the cold of a polar region. 
It feeds of necessity almost entirely on animal food, such as the 
whale, the seal, the walrus, and fish. It is an excellent swimmer. 

Bears are very remarkable for maternal affection. The fol- 
lowing history, related in one of the polar voyages, develops this 
trait in their character, and may be made use of by the teacher to 
illustrate the affection bestowed on the children themselves by their 
own mothers ; the trouble, anxiety, and pain they undergo, and 
the return of obedience and love which such affection claims : 

Early one morning the man at the masthead gave notice that 
three bears were fast making their way across the ice to the ship. 
They had no doubt been invited by the scent of the blubber of a 
walrus, which had been set on fire, and was burning on the ice. 
They proved to be a she bear and her two cubs. They ran 
eagerly to the fire, and drew out from the flames part of the flesh 
yet unconsumed, and devoured it voraciously. The crew from the 
ship threw out great pieces of the flesh of the walrus. These the 
old bear carried away singly, laid each piece before her cubs, and 
dividing them, gave to each a share, reserving a very small por- 
tion for herself. As she was fetching the last piece, the sailors 
levelled their muskets at the cubs, shot them both dead, and 
wounded the dam in her retreat, but not mortally. It would have 
drawn tears of pity from any but savage hearts, to have witnessed 
the affectionate concern manifested by the poor beast, in the last 
moments of her expiring young. Though she was sorely wounded, 
and could scarcely crawl to the place where they lay, she carried 
the lump of flesh which she had fetched, as she had done others 
before, tore it in pieces, and laid it before them ; and when she 
saw that they refused to eat it, she placed her paws first upon one, 
then upon the other, and attempted to raise them up : all the while 
it was piteous to hear their moan. Finding that she could not stir 
them, she went off, and when she had got to some distance, she 
looked back and moaned ; and that not availing to entice them 
away, she returned, and smelling around them, began to lick their 
wounds. She went off a third time as before, and having crawled 
a few paces, looked again behind her, and for some time stood 



330 LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THIRD STEP. 

moaning. Finding at last that they were cold and lifeless, she 
raised her head toward the ship, and growled her resentment to 
their murderers, which they returned by shooting her dead. She 
fell between her cubs, and died licking their wounds." 

The attachment of the bear to her cubs, and her wrath when 
deprived of them, is often alluded to in the Scriptures. In Hosea 
xiii. 8, the Lord threatens to meet his people who had forsaken 
him, "as a bear bereaved of her whelps." 'There is a similar 
allusion in 2 Samuel xvii. S : " For, said Hushai, thou knowest 
thy father and his men, that they be mighty men, and they be chafed 
in their minds, as a bear robbed of her whelps in the field." 

A Weasel. 

The recapitulatory questions may be put in the following man- 
ner, with a view to variety in the mode of presenting the subject 
to the children. This is very important, as a means of keeping 
up interest, and giving more exercise to the mind. 

"What animals have you found fitted to live amidst trees ? 
"What kind of animal is suited to chasing its "prey in the air? 
What change in the formation of another animal renders it a good 
miner, and suited to feed on insects? What kind of feet are best 
adapted to a heavy, slow-moving animal ? Would such an ani- 
mal be able to pursue its prey ? Of what nature, then, may we 
expect to find its food ? But we now come to a bloodthirsty, 
flesh-eating race, of which the first family live upon vermin and 
poultry ; they must therefore be able to creep through very small 
holes, to thrust themselves into crevices, to crawl under fences, 
and sometimes to climb heights. The children should endeavor to 
conceive what description of body and what organs would adapt 
these creatures for such habits and propensities. Who ordained 
their food to be of such a kind, and gave them the desire for it ? 
What, then, may we be sure of, as to their particular formation ? 

By such questions as these, the children may be led to see that 
animals with propensities such as are implanted in the weasel, need 
a slender, light, flexible, yet powerful body, with a small tapering 
head, and short limbs armed with claws. Let them observe that 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THIRD STEP. 331 

such is the form of the weasel tribe, by the actual examination of 
a stuffed specimen or a picture. Prompt them to call to mind any 
creatures they may know that force their way through the earth, 
or wind about through the grass, and under stumps and fences. 
"What is the form of worms, and what their peculiar motion ? 

The weasel, and other animals of this tribe, are called loorm- 
shaped* from their resemblance to worms in shape and movement. 
Their limbs are short and strong ; and instead of placing the entire 
sole of the foot on the ground like the bear, they walk on their 
toes.f This fact having been told them, the children should them- 
selves draw the inference, that their step is consequently free, light, 
and active. Their bodies are so tapering and flexible, that they 
move with grace and rapidity. Their teeth, being pointed, are 
fitted for seizing and tearing their prey. They all emit a very un- 
pleasant odor. We find that their disposition is bloodthirsty, and 
that their form and organs are adapted to the gratification of these 
propensities. Then, by similar instances of the form and organ- 
ization of animals being suited to their several habits and propen- 
sities, of which the children themselves may remember several, 
lead them to the conclusion, that in God's works all is harmony. 

There is another point to which attention should be drawn, 
viz., the providence of God in the creation of a race of animals, 
which, while satisfying their own appetite, prove useful to man by 
preventing the excessive increase of vermin that by feeding upon 
grain do farmers so much injury. 

The Stoat. 

The children should compare this animal with the preceding 
one, and point out any features in which they are alike, or in 
which they differ. The stoat is larger than the weasel, and is 
especially distinguished by the changes that take place in its fur 
as winter approaches. In summer this is of a reddish brown ; but 
in those animals which inhabit northern countries it becomes of a 
pure white in winter, except the tip of the tail, which is always 

* Vermiform. 

t They are called digitigrade, or movers on the toes. 



332 LESSONS ON ANIMALS, THIRD STEP. 

black. Why this change ? One reason is, that the gracious Cre- 
ator thus enables this creature to escape observation when the 
ground is covered with snow. The change has also another ad- 
vantage ; for its white coat enables it better to resist the intense 
cold of Siberia, as the heat of its body does not pass off so rapidly 
as it would if its color were dark. (The children may not under- 
stand the reason of this, but the fact is very interesting.) An- 
other provision for its comfort is, that the fur becomes thicker in 
winter. Man, being possessed of reason, is able to provide for the 
changes of seasons ; but God administers more immediately to the 
necessities of the brute creation.* The fur of the stoat is called 
ermine. It is considered very valuable, and forms the robes of 
kings and nobles. The hunter seeks it in the winter season. 
Why ? The facts on which the answer to such a question de- 
pends have been already told the children. 

The Ferret. 

The children should describe the animal, its slender, worm-like 
body, short legs, sharp claws, pointed teeth, and piercing eyes, and 
then determine to which of the animals already examined it bears 
the most resemblance. They should state any differences they 
perceive, and be led to infer, from the similarity of the organs and 
form of this animal to those of the weasel and stoat, that its hab- 
its and propensties must be similar to theirs. The sanguinary dis- 
position of this creature is turned to account, in using it to clear 
our premises from vermin ; but though employed and domesticated 
by man, it seems quite incapable of attachment to its owner. 

The Sable. 

This digitigrade, vermiform, carnivorous creature, is interesting 
from the high value at which its fur is estimated. 

The sable is found in the forests and mountains of Siberia ; and 
owing to the extreme cold of this icy region, and the fact of the 

* The children may be led themselves to notice such facts. They know that 
man has reason, and animals instinct, and they will be able to see the reason for 
this different provision. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THIKD STEP. 333 

chase being generally pursued in winter, the fur of the animal 
being most thick and rich at that season, the poor hunter is ex- 
posed to extreme peril, and often perishes amidst the pathless 
wilds. The chase of this animal is a punishment imposed on the 
exiles of the Eussian Government, who are required to furnish a 
certain number of skins annually. 

Points of interest to which the children's attention may be 
directed : The beautiful provision made for the necessities of this 
animal by a beneficent Creator, in the thickening of its fur in the 
winter season, and in the continuation of this covering to the ex- 
tremities of the toes ; and also the fact of man being able to 
appropriate such animals to himself so as to derive advantage from 
them. 

As a summary, the children should describe whatever is com- 
mon in the habits and organs of this race of animals. They 
should also remark upon the office they perform in nature. 



DOMESTIC DOGS. 

Spaniels. 

The children should again examine the picture of the varieties 
of dogs, and then endeavor to make out what peculiarity distin- 
guishes the spaniel from others of its race. It has a long head, 
with a pointed muzzle ; its ears are soft, long, and pendent, fitted 
to gather the sound of footsteps from the ground ; its hair is silky 
and waving, and either of a red liver color, or black and white ; 
the tail bushy. Its scent is very delicate, and guides it in the 
pursuit of its prey. It is exceedingly docile, intelligent, and affec- 
tionate. Many instances are on record of its attachment to its 
owner. It has been known to preserve the recollection of its mas- 
ter, and to recognize him after an absence of so long duration that 
his friends had forgotten him. There are several varieties of the 
spaniel. Some, as lap clogs, are very small ; others are larger, and 
are employed in field sports. One species, from its mode of mark- 
ing its prey, is called the setter. The following account well de- 
scribes the characteristics of this dog : "A setter dog should be a 



334 LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — THIKD STEP. 

fine land spaniel that will range well, and yet at such absolute 
command, that when he is in full career, one ' hem ' of his master 
shall make him stand still, gaze about him, and look in his mas- 
ter's face, as it were expecting directions from him whether to pro- 
ceed, stand still, or retire. But the main thing he is to be taught 
is, when he sees and is near his prey, of a sudden to stand still, or 
fall down flat on his belly, without making any noise or motion till 
his master comes up." "What a lesson does such a dog teach chil- 
dren ! "What is there in this animal they may imitate ? His 
prompt obedience ; his desire to please, and to do his appointed 
work ; his self-denial, giving up his own pleasure to that of his 
master. 

The pointer is another dog also employed by the sportsman. 
It resembles the spaniel, but it has less hair, nor is its hair waving. 
This dog is trained to stop and to point to the spot where game 
lies hid. Its natural instinct is to approach its prey stealthily, 
and then, pausing for an instant, to spring upon it with an unerring 
aim derived from this pause. Education has converted this short 
rest and rapid spring into a fixed and deliberate rest, which has 
been thus quaintly described : " This semicolon in his proceedings, 
man converts into a full stop." 

The dogs called hounds are used in hunting the deer-, fox, hare, 
and otter. They are keen of scent, and are kept in numbers, 
called a pack. Their fleetness is so great that the swiftest horse 
alone can keep pace with them. The tone of their cry is deep 
and mellow, but the neighborhood of a dog kennel is not very 
agreeable, as they make a sad howling when fed. The feeding 
of a dog kennel furnishes a proof of the complete obedience to 
which these animals can be trained. " They are hungry, and 
know that they are about to be fed, but they manifest no rebel- 
lious impatience. The feeder stations himself at the door which 
separates the outer kennel from the feeding room. On his arrival, 
a cry of joy is set up by the whole pack, but it is instantly silenced 
at his command. He calls, ' Juno' — Juno passes out ; ' Ponto' — 
Ponto follows ; and so on through the pack, even should there be 
as many as thirty couples. If a young dog should attempt to 
move out of his order, he is sent back ; he recollects his punish- 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THIRD STEP. 335 

merit, and seldom transgresses again. The pack is brought to this 
state of perfect discipline by gentle correction." 

The greyhound is remarkable for the great beauty and elegant 
lightness and symmetry of its form, peculiarly fitting it for fleet- 
ness and agility. Its head is very pointed, ears short and erect, 
but pendent at their tips. Its limbs are slender, its body thin, and 
standing high ; its fur smooth, with short hairs. In disposition it 
is gentle and affectionate. It is principally used in hunting the 
hare, which it pursues chiefly by sight, not having so keen a scent 
as other dogs of the chase. 

The terrier is another of the sporting dogs. Two of these 
dogs usually accompany the fox hounds. They are also most use- 
ful in catching rats. The terrier is a thick-set, brisk-looking ani 
mal, with rather short legs, its muzzle not projecting so much as 
that of the spaniel. Its short legs enable it to creep under the 
grass and through brakes and bushes. There are two species : 
one, the Scotch terrier, has very rough and wiry hair ; the other 
has a smoother coat, and altogether is more delicate in appearance. 
It is supposed that the terrier is the native dog of the British Isles. 
It is remarkable for the eagerness and courage with which it makes 
its way into the earth after those animals, from the fox to the rat, 
which are usually called vermin. It possesses great sagacity, and 
is most daring in its attacks upon larger animals. It is used as a 
guard to the house, as well as in the chase. 

These lessons on the sporting dogs may be useful as exercises 
for the children in drawing Jut a description of the various dogs 
they may see in pictures, or with which they may be familiar, the 
teacher supplying whatever escapes their observation. They 
should be led to observe the education these dogs receive, and the 
improvement it produces, and draw the inference that they should 
themselves value education, and be thankful for being taught. 
Not only are the senses of these dogs rendered more acute by 
their being used in the service of man, but they are also wonder- 
fully trained to forego the indulgence of their own natural propen 
sities, and to use their powers, not for their own gratification, but 
for that of their master. Their carnivorous appetites would 
prompt them immediately to devour the animal which their scent 



336 LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — THIRD STEP. 

has discovered, were they not trained to obey their master at the 
sacrifice of their own inclinations. 

Dogs — {continued). 

In what service are those dogs employed, upon which you 
have had lessons ? "What organs are most useful in the chase ? 
'How would you characterize their motion ? How are their feet 
adapted to fleet motion ? Why, for instance, can they run more 
swiftly than the bear ? In what respect are their bodies better 
fitted for motion than that of the bear ? They are light and slen- 
der, and their muzzle pointed. Now repeat together : " The dogs 
of the chase are fitted for rapid motion by being digitigrade, and 
by having a light, slender body, and pointed muzzle." "What 
sense is very important in directing their pursuit ? How has the 
Creator wisely provided for this necessity ? What do they need 
in addition to the power of pursuing their prey ? The power of 
catching and eating it. By what organs are these actions accom- 
plished ? By the teeth and claws. How are their teeth and 
claws fitted for seizing and eating animals ? What is essential to 
the life of animals ? What is the chief food of dogs ? How are 
they fitted for their flesh eating propensity ? "What are the les- 
sons which their history affords you ? Tell me some other uses 
of dogs other than that of the chase. They guard our houses, 
our property, and our lives. Here is a picture of two dogs which 
are especially useful as guards to oiu^dwellings and property — the 
bulldog and the mastiff. What do you observe when you com- 
pare these with the spaniel tribe ? The head is thicker, the muzzle 
short, and the aspect very fierce. They are bold and ferocious. 
How does man make use of this disposition ? He turns it against 
those who would injure him or his property. There is another 
very useful dog, which perhaps some of you may have seen, which 
is much used in the old countries in watching and guarding flocks 
on the mountains, and in driving them from one place to another. 
"What dog is this ? The shepherd's dog. What does the shep- 
herd's dog do ? Yes ; he drives the sheep along the streets ; he 
keeps them together, and allows none to straggle. Looking at his 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — THIRD STEP. 337 

master, he receives his directions, and then faithfully and saga- 
ciously executes his will. The dog you see thus employed in the 
streets is called a drover. The dog that guards the mountain flocks 
is a much finer animal, and it is very beautiful to see how he can 
keep a very large flock of sheep within their proper hounds, 
bringing up every straggler without any violence, and knowing 
the sheep of his master from those of every other flock. Do you 
think that it is natural to these dogs to take care of sheep ? No. 
How, then, do they become such a valuable help to the shepherd ? 
You' remember what we remarked as to the dogs of chase, how 
their natural instincts were turned to man's account. What, then, 
is done, should you think, with the drover and the shepherd's dog? 
They are educated by man, who teaches them their lesson, and 
that which they thus learn becomes a second nature to them. 
How do these dogs carry out the lessons given to them ? "What 
virtues do they display ? "What may children learn from them ? 

Is the dog useful to the rich only ? No ; he is also the poor 
man's friend. Can you tell me how ? Yes ; he will guard his 
clothes while he is at work, and will lead about the poor blind 
man. The following is a remarkable instance of the docility and 
sagacity of the dog : One of these animals was in the habit of 
conducting a blind beggar through the streets of Rome. This 
dog, besides guiding his master in such a manner as to protect him 
from all danger, learned to distinguish, not only the streets, but the 
houses where the blind man was accustomed to receive alms. 
"Whenever the dog came to any one of these streets, he would not 
leave it till a call had been made at every house where his master 
was usually supplied. When the beggar began to ask alms, and 
was received, the dog would lie down to rest ; but the master was 
no sooner served or refused, than the dog rose, without either 
order or sign, and proceeded to the other houses where the poor 
man generally was successful. When a halfpenny was thrown 
from a window, the sagacious animal went in search of it, carried 
it in his mouth, and placed it in the beggar's hat. Even when 
bread was thrown, he would not take it unless he received a por- 
tion from his master's own hand.* 

* A story renders the subject under discussion very attractive. There are 
15 



338 LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — THIRD STEP. 

The Fox. 

The most obvious characteristics of the fox may be discovered 
by the children ; as, its pointed head, its long narrow pupil, and 
its long bushy tail. They may be told that the shape of the pupil 
marks it as a nocturnal animal ; and they may be led to under- 
stand why its eye should be so formed, by considering the effect 
that light has upon eyes accustomed to darkness, and to admire 
the goodness which, by thus enabling the eye to contract and take 
in but few rays of light, provides for the comfort of the animal, 
and affords another instance of the kind care that the Creator 
bestows on liis creatures. 

The fox is distinguished from the wolf and dog by its longer 
and more bushy tail, its larger head and more pointed muzzle, its 
long body and short limbs, its triangular ears, and the form of its 
pupils, which contract under the influence of light to a mere line. 
The odor emitted by the fox is very disagreeable. The usual 
length of the animal is about two and a half feet ;* the height, 
one foot. The color is fawn, intermixed with black. The fox 
digs out holes under ground, to which our Saviour refers in Matt, 
viii. 20. It is a cunning, wily animal. In the dusk of the eve- 
ning it steals from its burrow with noiseless step, to prowl about 
for prey. Its sense of smell and of hearing are very keen ; it lis- 
tens, and snuffs the breeze, attentive to every sound, and observing 
every odor. "With a crouching attitudef it advances on its prey ; 
it surprises the rabbits gambolling near their burrow, the hare in 
her form, and the poultry on their perch. It slaughters all it finds ; 
and when its appetite is satisfied, it buries the remainder in the 
earth, to supply future necessities. It is exceedingly particular in 
the choice of its quarters. When it has selected the spot for its 

many very interesting narratives illustrating the fidelity and sagacity of dogs. 
The beautiful story of the dog at Bethgelert is well known. There is another in 
the " Library of Entertaining Knowledge, Menageries," vol. i., p. 79. 

* When the children are told the size of an animal, they may be required to 
mark it on the board ; and also when told the color, they may point to some 
specimen of the color named. 

t Attitude marks character. The wolf is bolder than the fox, and is more 
erect. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — THIRD STEP. 339 

abode, it explores the country to see what advantages it may 
afford, examining every spot likely to prove a safe retreat in the 
hour of danger. Its excessive suspicion and caution render any 
new object a source of distrust and inquietude ; it is uneasy until 
it has discovered what it may be, and approaches for the purpose 
of observation with slow and hesitating step, and by circuitous 
paths. It passes the day at the bottom of its hiding place, and 
sallies forth in search of prey during the obscurity of twilight or 
the darkness of night, gliding along stealthily to surprise the 
partridge. "When it cannot find game, it contents itself with field 
mice, frogs, and even snails. It is very fond of honey, and its 
liking for grapes is the subject of a well-known fable, and is also 
alluded to in the Bible, Song of Solomon ii. 15. 

The young are playful, and remain with their parent about 
four months. She is tender, watchful, and most resolute in their 
defence. The children may be told these facts, and then be ques- 
tioned upon them, being required also to draw up from them a 
sketch of the character of the fox ; and to say what in the animal 
we may imitate, and what avoid.* 

There is an instance on record of the great sagacity of the fox. 
The Earl of Thanet had a seat at Hothfield, in Kent, and another 
in Westmoreland. At the former place an extraordinarily large 
fox had been taken, and the earl ordered it to be conveyed to 
"Westmoreland. The following year, in Kent, a fox which had 
run into the earth was dug out, and declared by the huntsmen to be 
the very individual that had been taken to Westmoreland. Lord 
Thanet was incredulous, but having earmarked the animal, it was 
again removed to Westmoreland. In the following season a fox 
was killed at Hothfield, which proved to be the one in question, 
and it is evident that it must have found its way twice from West- 
moreland to Kent, a distance of about 320 miles. 

The Wolf. 

The children should first determine to which of the animals 
already examined the wolf bears the closest resemblance, and in 

* Teachers should especially avoid haviug one plan for all their lessons. 
Variety gives interest, and draws out different intellectual powers. 



340 LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — TIIIRD STEP. 

what respect it is like the dog, as in its general form and appear- 
ance, its teeth and claws, &c. "Which are the organs that mark 
the habits of an animal ? If an animal have claws and sharp- 
pointed teeth, what might Ave expect to he its food ? And if it 
feed on animals that it catches, for what kind of motion must it be 
fitted ? How is an animal fitted for pursuing its prey ? Let the 
children then consider the wolf, and say what they think its habits 
must be. Its claws, sharp teeth, and light, pointed form, indicate 
that it lives on animals which it pursues. What sense guides car- 
nivorous animals in the chase ? The wolf has a very keen scent. 
Let them compare the erect, forward ears of the wolf, with the 
thrown-back ears of the pursued hare, and find out the reason for 
those of the one being directed forward, of the other backward ; 
and acknowledge in this the wisdom and the goodness that fits 
each animal in every respect for the habits that are special to it. 
Having determined the points of resemblance between the wolf 
and the clog, the children should discover in what respect they 
differ, and so arrive at the characteristics of the wolf. The wolf 
is stronger and larger than the dog ; it possesses great muscular 
power ; its height at the shoulder is about two feet six inches, and 
about two feet four inches behind ; the length, from the tip of the 
muzzle to the root of the tail, three feet eight inches ;* its coat is 
very rough and coarse, of a grayish yellow color, with a black 
oblique stripe on the fore legs ; its eyes are placed obliquely, and 
its tail hangs down. In character it possesses none of the noble 
qualities of the dog ; whilst it is ferocious, cruel, and sanguinary, 
it is also cunning, wary, and cowardly. In former times this ani- 
mal was the dread and terror of Great Britain. The month of 
January was then called wolf month, because at that season the 
wolves, not being able to find their usual food, used to come forth 
from the forests and attack man. King Edgar did much to rid the 
land of these pests, by changing the tax levied upon the Welsh 
into an annual tribute of 300 wolves' heads. In the early settle- 
ments of some portions of this country they were also quite 
troublesome. How thankful should we be that we are not now 
exposed to such dangers ! (The children should draw the com- 

* The children should mark the size on the board. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THIRD STEP. o41 

parison, and say what -feelings our improved condition should in- 
spire.) There are many allusions in Scripture to the ferocious 
character and nocturnal habits of the wolf. (See Matt. vii. 15 ; 
Ezek. xxii. 27 ; Acts xx. 29.) 

Though the wolf is in general a solitary animal, it unites in 
troops for the purpose of securing its prey, and shows its cunning 
in the stratagems it employs. "When wolves attack the deer, 
which is greatly their superior in swiftness, they arrange them- 
selves in the form of a semicircle, and creeping slowly toward the 
herd, they either completely hem them in and surround them, or 
urge them by hideous yells over some precipice in the only direc- 
tion they leave open to them. 

This course may be completed with reference to the list given 
at the end of the Step. 

MISCELLANEOUS SKETCHES. 

For the sake of variety, occasional lessons may be given on 
animals belonging to various classes. Variety secures interest. 
For sketch on a bird, see " The Ostrich." 

1. Sketch of a Lesson on the Ostrich. 

Adaptation of its structure to its mode of life : 

1. The size of the head is adapted to its long and slender 
neck. 

2. The eye, furnished with an additional lid which can be 
drawn down at pleasure, is peculiarly protected against the intense 
heat of the sun, and the fine sand of the desert lands in which it 
dwells. 

3. The feathers of the wings, being loose, and not furnished 
with barblets, aid the bird in running. 

4. The great strength of its large legs enables it the better 
to take those long journeys which it is obliged to travel in search 
of food. 

5. The membrane of the foot, and the pad which it incloses, 
give this bird lightness and buoyancy, and fit it for its passage 
over sandy deserts. 



342 LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — THIRD STEP. 

6. The pad on the breastbone constitutes a safeguard against 
injury from any hard substance when the bird is resting on the 
ground. 

The lesson should conclude by drawing the proper inference 
from such complete adaptation of organs to the peculiar wants of 
the bird. 

Birds, as a class, are referred to the Fourth Step. It would 
prolong the Third Step too much, did it include a full course on 
birds as well as on mammals. 

Moreover, children, when they make the advance of a Step, 
like new subjects, as well as new plans. 

A class of students might construct " The Lion," " The 
Camel/' or « The Eagle," as " The Ostrich." 

2. For Sketch on a Reptile — The Tortoise. 

1. Habits. — The tortoise lives either on land or in water. It 
moves slowly on the ground, but swims beautifully. It comes on 
land to deposit its eggs, of which it lays a great number ; scrapes 
a hole in the sand, and leaves them to be hatched by the heat of 
the sun. Creatures that come from eggs are birds and reptiles. 
How their eggs may be distinguished ? The eggs of birds be- 
come hard by boiling ; those of reptiles become soft. The eggs 
of the tortoise become soft. "What, therefore, it must be ? 

2. Parts, &c. — The tortoise has a small head like that of a 
serpent ; four legs ; a tail. Children to decide how it defends 
itself. Name means of defence possessed by other animals. It 
has no horns, no sharp teeth. Children to infer that it cannot 
fight. Eeference to the hare and the mouse ; also other creatures 
that cannot. What these do when an enemy approaches ? But 
the tortoise cannot run away. How, then, kept in safety ? It 
has a hard covering. Describe shell : Very strong, thick, and 
hard ; formed of many pieces. (Draw on the board, to show how 
these are joined.) Draw a diagram representing the shell of the 
back. There are thirteen large pieces in the middle, and txoenty- 
three round the margin. Let the children count the number of 
pieces which compose the shell. Under part also covered with 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THIRD STEP. 343 

shell. Tell children that all creatures covered with this sort of 
armor are called reptiles. What they can call the tortoise, and 
why ? Compare with crocodile, &c. Children to name the parts 
the shell does not cover. Tail has a scaly covering of its own. 
Head and four legs uncovered. How protected ? Can be drawn 
into shell. Picture out the tortoise on a bright summer da}' - , float- 
ing on its back in a calm sea, and enjoying itself. No enemy able 
to hurt it. How kind it is in God to create this creature for happi- 
ness. After floating for some time, it will want to swim. "With 
what ? How fishes swim ? How the tortoise will be able to 
swim without fins ? Show how beautifully its feet are formed as 
"paddles" for this purpose. After a while it will have to come 
to land to lay its eggs. Whether likely to go far inland, and why 
not ? Care it takes to find a safe place for its eggs. Who enables 
it to do this ? What would happen to the eggs if this were not 
done ? It scrapes away the sand : how formed for doing this ? 

Summary. — The tortoise is a reptile. It is protected by a 
hard, strong shell, which covers its body, and underneath which it 
can draw its head and legs. Its feet are formed into "paddles," 
to enable it to swim, but furnished with nails hard enough to 
scrape away the sand where it wants to make a hole for its eggs. 
If time allows, tell the children that the shell is used for making 
combs, &e. ; that men catch tortoises by turning them on their 
backs, with spikes, when they are on land ; that they cannot get 
up ; they then take them away, and hold them over a very hot 
fire ; the upper shell loosens from the lower one, and falls off. 
The poor creature is then set free, and in another year a new shell 
appears. 

Students may construct a sketch on " The Frog," as " The 
Tortoise." 

For a sketch on an " Invertebrated Animal," see 

3. The Earth Worm. 
Matter. — I. Habits. II. Parts. III. Uses. 
I. — 1. Worms live under ground. They come to the surface 
when disturbed ; also in search of food. 



34-i LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THLED STEP. 

2. Worms, when they appear above ground, keep their tails 
firmly fixed in their holes, that they may retire on the least alarm. 
Even when altogether on the ground, they adhere to the surface, 
and are not easily removed. 

3. Worms feed on a very fine mould, which contains particles 
of putrid matter. They sometimes eject their food. What they 
throw up is called worm casts. 

II. — 1. The worm is boneless, and covered with a thick skin, 
which is formed into more than a hundred little rings. 

2. Every ring has four sharp, hooked bristles on the under 
side. These the worm can lift up or press down at will. 

3. The -head is sharp and pointed. It has a mouth with two 
fleshy lips, but no eyes, nostrils, ears, nor brain. 

4. The worm has a large stomach, which runs along the body 
to the end of the tail. 

5. The worm has four holes down the back, by means of which 
it breathes. 

6. It has reddish blood, which is cold. 

III. — 1. It removes and consumes decaying vegetable matter. 

2. Worm casts are a fine manure for grass. 

3. It loosens the ground. 

4. It serves as food to various classes — birds, moles, and fish. 

Method. I. — 1. Where the children have seen worms? 
Where they hide ? Disturbing causes likely to bring them to the 
surface ; as, digging, uprooting of trees, &c. Necessity of the 
worms moving about in order to obtain food, brought out by com- 
parison of animals with plants. 

2. Refer to previous observation and experiment. 

3. Children to judge what food worms are likely to find under 
ground — roots, slugs, grubs, &c. Why such food is unsuited to 
the worm ? It has no teeth, therefore its food must be soft. Give 
information, and explain putrid. 

II. — 1. Bring out boneless, by comparison with the arm, or by 
letting the children feel the worm. Illustrate by means of a piece 
of spring wire with a long needle put through the ring, to show 
that while a boneless body can contract and lengthen, a body 



LESSONS OK ANIMALS. THIRD STEP. 345 

formed with a skeleton cannot do so. Show the use of this con- 
traction and expansion, by explaining how the creature moves. 
To show that the skin should be tough, refer to the effect of dig- 
ging the ground with the hands. 

2. The difficulty of lifting the worm from the ground. The 
advantage of this to the worm. Refer to the condition of a worm 
on a street pavement, or in a stone quarry. "Why, in such a place, 
it must perish ? 

3. Head. — "Why no eyes and ears ? Refer to its habitation. 
No nostrils. Finds its food by touch of lips. Compare animals 
having brains, with brainless animals. Children draw conclusion 
from examples. 

4. Refer to the character of the food ; whence children judge 
of the small amount of nutriment it contains, and what difference 
this makes as to the quantity consumed. 

5. Refer to the holes in our face. Absence of nostrils ren- 
dering some other means of breathing necessary. 

6. Refer again to the habitation of the worm. Compare it 
with warm-blooded animals living under ground. The mole. Its 
covering. The exercise it takes. The worm has no covering, 
and no power of taking rapid exercise ; but these are not needed 
by it. 

III. — 1. Refer to the nature of its food. Effects, if not re- 
moved. 

2. Tell this. 

3. Compare garden beds with garden paths, to show .that in 
loosened soil the rain penetrates. The fibres of plants expand. 

4. Refer to previous observation. 

IV. Summary. — Children write out what matter they can re- 
member under each head. 

Students construct "The Dor-Beetle," as "The Earth "Worm." 

4. The Fish. 

I. Habits. — Found in water ; some in salt, some in fresh ; 
some emigrate from one to the other ; some frequent shallow, some 
deep water. Usually they move with great rapidity, and in direct 
15* 



34:1) LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — THIRD STEP. 

lines, discovering their prey by the sense of sight, darting on it, 
catching it, and instantly swallowing it alive ; red blooded, though 
cold blooded ; breathing air found in water by means of gills ; 
dying when taken out of the water ; young produced from spawn ; 
hatched by the heat of the sun. 

Let the children condense what has been found out. Classify 
the actions of the fish under three heads : 

1. Moving (swimming). 

2. Preying. 

3. Breathing. (W. B.) 

II. Adaptation of Parts to Habits. — 1. How adapted to swim- 
ming? 

(a) By its shape : Pointed muzzle ; head set on shoulders, 
without a neck ; shoulders rounded ; body rounded and tapering ; 
tail set edgewise. Why ? 

(b) By ite covering: Scales — strong, light, smooth, water 
proof, often varnished. Why ? Befer to the artificial flies used 
by anglers — formed of many pieces. Befer to a suit of armor. 

(c) By its limbs. Fins — light, strong, flat, undivided. Why ? 
Compare with j^osition of the fingers when swimming, and with 
the webbed foot of a water bird. How the fin offers resistance to 
the water ; also its use in balancing the fish. Befer to the insta- 
bility of the element in which the creature moves. 

Tail compared Avith the fins as to size and position. From 
the difference in position, lead the children to infer that the use 
would be different. Use of the tail in guiding the course of the 
fish described and simply illustrated. 

2. How formed for preying. 

(a) Eyes — size, position. Absence of eyelid. Why ? 

(b) Mouth — its width. Teeth — compare with teeth of mam- 
mals, and refer to the food of the fish. Number of rows, shape, 
direction. 

3. How formed for breathing in the water ? Befer to the 
human lungs, as a spongy substance, pervious to air, and full of 
veins, filled with blood, to which the air penetrates. Examine 
the gills. How they differ. External organs, consisting of a sue- 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — THIED STEP. 347 

cession of plates. The skin wrought into fringes at the end of 
each, so as to expose the greatest possible quantity of blood to 
the air. By experiment with a piece of sea weed, or of a buffalo 
robe, show that the blood is brought into contact with the air only 
when the gill is under water. 

III. Summary. — Children write out what they can remember 
under each head and sub-head. 

Students construct a lesson on " The Whale," as " The Fish," 
and then draw up sketch on " Comparison of Fish and Whale." 

Lessons on Parts of Animals are sometimes advantageously 
given. 

EXAMPLE. 

5. Horns of Animals. 

Get the children to name any animals they know having 
horns. Show the picture of a cow, a goat, and a deer. Let 
them find out the difference in the horns of these. 

1. As to Position. — The horns of kine are placed in front of 
the head, and extend upward and outward. (W. B.) The horns 
of goats slant backward. (W. B.) The horns of stags branch 
in different directions. (W. B.) Bring this out by drawing the 
outline of a head, and let children represent the three kinds and 
directions of horns. 

2. As to Form. — (a) The horns of kine are round, broad 
at the base, and tapering toward the point. (W. B.) (Com- 
pare with cylinder and cone.) They are curved. (W. B.) 
(6) The horns of goats have the same general form, but are 
larger than those of kine, and less curved. (W. B.) (Compare 
them.) (c) The horns of stags spread out from the base, like the 
branches of a tree. (W. B.) 

3. As to Substance. — Horn is a stiff, hard, semitransparent, 
yellowish-brown substance. The horns of kine and goats have a 
bony core, that fills up the interior space of the horn. Stags' 
horns differ, in being solid. (W. B.) Children observe and de- 
scribe the material of which horns are composed. Are told that 
the cow's horns are sometimes used as drinking cups. Why ? 



348 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THIRD STEP. 



That goats' horns are the same in substance. How stags' horns 
differ ? 

4. As to Uses. — Horns are given as a means of defence to crea- 
tures that would otherwise be defenceless. (W. B.) (What 
cows do with their horns ? goats ? rams ? Refer to the poor 
hunted stag when it stands at bay.) "Why God lias given horns 
to these animals ? (Compare the teeth and feet of horned animals 
with those of carnivorous animals.) 

Students construct a lesson on " The Teeth or Feet of Ani- 
mals." 

LISTS OF SUBJECTS. 





Class Mammalia. 




I. Monkey. 


Fox. 


Horse. 


Ourang-outang. 


Wolf. 


Ass. 


Baboon. 


VI. Cat. 


Zebra. 


II. Bat. 


Lion. 


X. Buffalo 




Tiger. 


Cow. 


III. Mole. 


Leopard. 


Sheep. 


Hegdehog. 


Panther. 


Goat, 


Porcupine. 


Hyena. 


Antelope. 


Ant Eater. 




Camel. 




VII. Brown Bear. 


Giraffe. 


IY. Weasel. 


Polar Bear. 


Deer. 


Stoat. 




Reindeer. 


Ferret. 


VIII. Seal. 




Sable. 


Whale. 


XL Beaver. 
Squirrel. 


V. Domestic Dogs. 


IX. Hippopotamus. 


Hare. 


Spaniel. 


Rhinoceros. 


Rabbit. 


Pointer. 


Elephant. 


Rat. 


Hound. 


Tapir. 




Terrier. 


Pig. 


XII. Kangaroo. 


MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. 


Boa Constrictor. 


Shark. 


Lobster. 


Rattlesnake. 


Dolphin. 


Starfish. 


Viper. 


Torpedo. 


Bee. 


Common Snake. 


Cuttlefish, 


Ant. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — FOURTH STEP. 349 



Alligator. 


Salmon. 


Housefly. 


Turtle. 


Cod. 


Beetle. 


Tortoise. 


Sole. 


Spider. 


Frog. 


Herring. 


Earth Worm, 


Toad. 


Pike. 





FOURTH STEP. 



CLASS OF BIRDS. 



The teacher should begin by procuring a full set of pictures ; 
specimens are still better. The children give the name that ap- 
plies to all ; then, as far as they can, the name that applies to 
each. Are told that it is the object of the lesson to put all these 
birds into classes, or groups. Children exercised in finding points 
according to which a classification may be made : According to 
color ; according to size ; as wild or tame ; according to habita- 
tion, food, or structure. Children led to decide on the best basis 
for classification — structure. The best points on this basis are 
beaks and feet. They may then begin to classify. If they need 
guidance, teacher may direct their attention. 

I. — 1. To the eagle — the king of birds. "Why so called? 
How characterized ? Size, beak, claws. Children to infer the 
habits indicated by this structure. Select birds with similar 
characteristics ; as, condor, hawk, owl. "W. B. in column under 
title of " Birds of Prey." 

2. Children to find a distinct group of birds. They choose, 
say the hen, turkey, peacock, on account of their resemblance, 
having blunt beaks, strong legs, heavy bodies. W. B. in column. 
Give the term Ground Birds. Children say how this name 
applies. 

3. A third set of birds to be found. Children select, say stork 
and heron, for their long legs, bony beaks and necks. Form 
column under " Stilt Birds." Name — why given ? 

4. Children may perhaps next select the duck, goose, &c. 
May be told that all birds that frequent large bodies of water, 
whether fresh or salt, have one important characteristic, which 



350 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. FOURTH STEP. 



they must find out (webbed feet). "Write column under " Web' 
footed Birds." 

5. To lead them to discover another class, they must be told 
to compare the feet of the birds that remain unclassified. They 
will soon distinguish the climbing birds. Name given, and 
column made. 

6. Children to be told that all the remaining birds are classed 
together as Perching Birds. 

II. Children mention various birds, and decide in which 
column each name is to be written. The blackboard may appear 
as follows : 



Birds of 


Ground 


Stilt 


Web-footed 


Climbing 


Perching 


Prey. 


Birds. 


Birds. 


Birds. 


Birds. 


Birds. 


Eagle. 


Hen. 


Heron. 


Goose. 


Woodpecker. 


Raven. 


Condor. 


Turkey. 


Stork. 


Duck. 


Parrot. 


Magpie. 


Hawk. 


Peacock. 


Flamingo. 


Penguin. 




Pigeon. 


Owl. 


Quail. 


Ibis. 


Gull. 




Canary. 




Partridge. 




Frigate Bird. 




Lark. 




Ostrich. 




Albatross. 




Nightingale, 

Thrush. 

W^en. 

Robin. 

Kingfisher. 



In recapitulating, the orders should be arranged as given by 
naturalists, and the term order given. Whether or not to give 
scientific terms, as Eaptores, may be left to the discretion of the 
teacher. The English terms would seem to be as good as the 
Latin ; thus, 



1st Order. 


2d Order. 


Sd Order. 


4th Order. 


laveners. 


Perchers. 


Climbers. 


Scratchers. 




5th Order. 


6th Order. 






Waders. 


Swimmers. 





When the teacher names the order, the children should be 
able to give examples. Examples given by the teacher; they 
refer to the order. Lessons need to be given on the subordinate 
groups ; as, 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. FOURTH STEP. 351 



on fresh flesh, 
on carrion. 



t TV 1 i -feeders 
Haveners j \ Feeders 

( Nocturnal. 

( The Crow tribe. 
Perchers -| The Swallow tribe. 
( The Finch tiibe, &c. 

Refer to any good work on Natural History. For example 
of Method, see sketch on 

1. The Swallow Tribe. 

I. Teacher tells the children that they are about to inspect a 
species of bird which spends almost all its time in the air, and 
hardly ever touches earth. Requires them to tell, first, what 
organs will be in constant use (wings). Of what general charac- 
ter these must be (large and strong). Secondly, which organs 
will hardly be used at all (legs). Of what character these (prob- 
ably) will be (small and slender). Thirdly, what kind of food 
the birds will be able to find in the air (insects). Fourth, what 
birds will do when the cold winter comes, and no insects are to 
be found ? (go to a warmer climate.) Fifth, whether they (chil- 
dren) can name the species they have thus far described ? 

II. Teacher produces specimen of the swallow (also a speci- 
men of a bulfmch for comparison). Children will tell the struc- 
ture : Long, slender, tapering, and light body (compared with 
bulfinch) ; very long wings (compared with the body) ; broad and 
forked tail ; very wide mouth ; very delicate beak (compared with 
that of bulfmch) ; short, slender legs ; delicate but long and curved 
claws ; thick plumage, smooth and glossy. 

Children required to explain the adaptation of this structure to 
habits. If they have been previously trained, it will no longer 
be found necessary to question them on separate points. They 
will at once give the required explanation. Thus : Body light, 
that it may be easily sustained in air ; long, slender, and tapering, 
that it may pass through air more swiftly and readily ; thickest 
just below the neck, where the muscles of the wings are devel- 



352 LESSORS ON ANIMALS. FOUKTH STEP. 

oped, that the muscles may be large and powerful enough to 
move them ; tapering, for lightness ; tail expanded, to help to 
support the body ; length of wing, indicating the immense power 
of flight ; very wide mouth, for catching its prey on the wing ; 
delicate beak, corresponding with the general delicacy of the bird, 
indicating the soft character of its food ; slender legs, not required 
for walking ; thick plumage, to meet alteration of temperature ; 
glossy plumage, that little friction may impede its flight. Teacher 
directs attention to habits, which children do not so readily dis- 
cover : That of keeping insects in the mouth till many are col- 
lected ; that of clinging to roofs, &c, when resting for a moment 
in flight. 

III. Teacher presents specimens of swift and marten. Chil- 
dren compare these with swallow. Find swift the largest ; can 
fly farthest ; marten the least. Swallow distinguished by the 
peculiar beauty and burnish of its plumage. Information given 
as to the number of hours these birds pass in the air daily. 
Character of their movements. (Exercise the conceptive faculty.) 
Kind of nest. Special kind of food. Time of their appearance 
and departure. Countries to which they migrate. Scripture and 
poetical reference. 

Summary. — Children write out lesson under heads : 
I. Birds of swallow tribe. How distinguished ? 
II. General structure. 
III. Habits, and adaptation of structure to them. 

2. Incidental Lesson on the Habitations of Birds. 

I. Introduction. — Get a list from the children with reference 
to the various habitations and localities of birds. (~W. B., sup- 
plying their omissions.) The list may stand thus : Eagle, owl, 
lark, rook, magpie, ostrich, hen, swallow, heron, sea gull. 

II. Let the children say what they know about the eagle. 
"What sorts of places it frequents, or where it rears its young ? 
Give any information required, and help the children to form a 
vivid conception of the craggy mountain top, far above the dis- 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. FOURTH STEP 353 

tant village ; the few sticks that indicate a nest, &c. ; the owl in 
the church tower, covered with ivy, looking forth at night like a 
sentinel ; the lark, hidden in the meadow, springing up, soaring, 
singing ; the rook, with its companions in the tops of the tall trees 
near the mansion house ; the magpie on the apple tree in the cot- 
tage garden ; the ostrich, with even pace, faster than the gallop 
of a horse, scudding over the interminable expanse of sand ; the 
hen in the farmyard, by the bam door ; the swallow circling above 
the pond ; the heron on the edge of the marshy pool in the hol- 
low of the dark moor ; the sea gull cresting the white waves, or 
resting on the cliffs that border them. The children will recognize 
the goodness of God in peopling the world with so many beautiful 
and happy creatures. They will be ready to say : " Lord, how 
manifold are thy works ; in wisdom hast thou made them all ; the 
world is full of thy goodness." 

CLASS MAMMALIA. 

1. The children, having finished the course on birds, may be 
required to draw on their previous knowledge of mammals, and 
to make a classification of them on the blackboard. A record of 
their work should be kept. 

2. Next time teacher offers some help, directing their atten- 
tion to the points which should guide them in classifying ; as, 
limbs, teeth. They make a second list. 

3. Next time the teacher gives them the number of orders. 
Children make third classification, which is compared with the 
proper one. Where this differs from theirs, and why ? 

The separate groups of mammals may now be taken up, but 
usually with brevity. Example : 

1. The Dog Tribe. 

I. Origin of dogs. Other animals of the dog tribe. Ani- 
mals of the dog tribe named. Their general characteristics. 
Origin of the domestic dog. Whether from the jackal? the fox? 
the wolf? or an original dog? Kesemblance in habits to the 
jackal, and in structure to the wolf. Point of difference in posi- 



354 LESSONS ON ANIMALS. FOURTH STEP. 

tion of the eyes, and possible reason for this. Comparison of the 
wolf and dog as to disposition. 

II. Domesticated dogs. Different groups, and characteristics 
of each. European dogs compared with those of the East. 
Scripture illustrated. European dogs divided into three groups : 

1. Arctic dogs. 

2. Hunting dogs. 

3. "Watch dogs. 

1. Arctic Dogs. — "Where found ? From the name, children 
decide in the north of Europe and Iceland, though also in Kamt- 
chatka and China. How distinguished ? Very sharp muzzle ; 
pointed ears ; shaggy hair, long at the neck ; elevated curled tail ; 
color black, white, or black and white. How connected with the 
second group (by the Newfoundland.) 

2. Hunting Dogs. — Where found? In all the temperate re- 
gions, but especially in Europe. How distinguished (large pen- 
dulous ears ; large jaws ; long legs ; thick tails). What the 
group includes (fox hound, stag hound, pointer, setter, terrier, and 
Danish dog — spaniel a cross). 

3. Watch Dogs. — Found in all temperate climates. Physical 
characteristics not so marked as in the other groups. Greater 
variety in all respects. Reason for this. Includes all shepherd 
dogs ; also mastiff, bulldog, and greyhound ; the two last at first 
sight dissimilar, but nearly allied, having delicate feet, slender tail, 
good sight, imperfect smell, ferocious disposition. Irish greyhound 
called xvolf dog. Anecdote of. How the third group is connected 
with the first ? By the shepherd's dog. How with the second ? 
By the greyhound. 

III. Conclusion drawn as to the general characteristics of 
each group. The first are nearest to a state of nature ; the second 
show in the highest degree the effects of physical cultivation ; the 
third have most intelligence. Anecdotes proving this. Use of 
the dog to man, in every state. Goodness of God in giving him 
such a friend. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. FOURTH STEP. 355 

2. The Cat Tribe. 

Animals of the cat tribe compared with those of the dog 
tribe. (Terms feline and canine given.) 

1. Compared with respect to structure : Body, limbs, feet, 
shape of head, eves, and teeth, covering, feelers. 

2. With respect to habits : One found in packs, and the other 
alone, or with its mate. Character of food. Methods of securing 
their prey, &c. 

3. With respect to appearance : Beautiful markings, spots, &o, 
on the glossy fur of the one ; shaggy hair of the other. 

4. With respect to distribution : The canine tribe is found all 
over the globe ; the feline tribe chiefly in torrid regions, thinly 
inhabited by man. Wisdom of this arrangement. Species of 
each tribe distinguished. What species are found in the Old 
World, and what in the New ? 

INCIDENTAL LESSONS. 

r 

3. Animals Used in Hunting. 

I. Animals of the Dog Tribe. — Draw from the children the 
fact that animals hunt as well as men. What kinds of animals 
hunt ? Dogs. Children to say how the dog is adapted for hunt- 
ing. Refer to the wolf as a natural hunter. 

II. Animals of the Cat Tribe. — Tell the children that in East- 
ern countries animals of the cat tribe are used for hunting. Let 
them compare these with creatures of the clog tribe, and find out 
which make the best hunters. Creatures of the cat tribe (a) can- 
not run far ; (b) are less docile ; (c) are more bloodthirsty. Give 
account of the chetah, and, from the facts before discovered, let 
the children say why it must be brought in a cart to the field ? 
Why blindfolded ? Why allowed to drink the blood of its prey ? 

III. Animals of the Weasel Tribe. — Produce picture or speci- 
men of a ferret. Refer to its tribe. Kind of animals it hunts 
(rats and mice). How adapted to this kind of hunting ? Tell 
children that it is often muzzled, and set to hunt rabbits. Com- 
pare the cat, dog, and ferret, as tameable creatures. Refer to the 



356 LESSONS ON ANIMALS.— FOURTH STEP. 

otter and ichneumon, creatures of the ferret tribe, as employed in 
India and Egypt. Conclude with reference to the power given by 
God to man over the inferior creatures. How it should be used ? 



4. Sketch on Rodents. 

I. Order. — Present stuffed specimen or picture of the squirrel, 
rabbit, hare, rat, mouse. All or any, with a picture of a beaver. 
Children, who name each, are told they are grouped together, and 
required to find the basis of classification. It might be size, for 
they are small animals ; or disposition, for they are timid ; or 
character of food, for they live on hard substances; but the chil- 
dren know that animals are classed according to structure, espe- 
cially the structure of the feet and teeth. Examination of the 
feet presents no special characteristics. We must look to the 
teeth. These creatures are named from the manner in which they 
use these. They gnaw, and are therefore called rodents. 

II. Structure of Teeth. — Teeth of specimens examined, and 
diagram placed on the board. 

1. Incisors : Sharp at the edge, chisel shaped, meeting the 
opposite teetli in a semicircle i^-^i. Tell children that the front 
surface is of the hardest enamel, the inner surface of softish bone. 
What must happen to teeth that are constantly working against 
very hard substances ? They must wear away rapidly. How 
this is provided for by constant growth of teeth, &c. Which sur- 
face will wear away the sooner ? (The inner surface.) Effect of 
this arrangement on the shape of the teeth — securing always a 
sharp edge. 

2. Grinders : Ridges — their direction, from side to side. Chil- 
dren find in what direction the rodent must move its mouth to 
grind its food. Are told the creatures are furnished with a strong 
muscle, which gives great power to the movement of the jaw. 

3. Canine teeth absent. Rodents have no weapon of defence. 
Children to find five means by which they are protected. 

1. They are small. 

2. They are very timid. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. — FOURTH STEP. 357 

3. They have large eyes. 

4. They have ears pointing backward. 

5. They have long bodies. 

Use of each point to the rodent? 

III. Summary. — Substance written on the board as dictated 
by the children ; the teacher, however, leaving ellipses for them to 
supply in reproducing the lesson on paper. 

Gnawing animals include . They are so named because 

. They have sharp , which enables them to . 

The front surface is , the under merely . Constant 

feeding upon causes . This is remedied by . 

The soft bone wears away, while the . The advantage of 

this is . The grinders are , so that in masticating the 

food the jaw must be . The jaws have great power, owing 

to . Canine teeth are . The rodents have many ene- 
mies ; cannot ; but often escape, because . 

5. Clothing of Animals. 

I. Introduction. — Let the children know the subject of the 
lesson. Get them to name animals having different clothing. If 
they are slow in giving examples, suggest the animal, and let them 
say how it is clad. Put down each answer on the board, thus : 

The cat is covered with fur. 

The herring is covered with scales. 

The horse is covered with hair. 

II. Classification. — Help the children to classify the facts, 
putting them on the board, asking where each creature lives, and 
marking those that live on earth with fig. 1 ; those that live on 
air, with fig. 2 ; those that live both on land and in water, with 
fig. 3 ; give the term amphibious ; and those that live in water 
only, with fig. 4. Children state the clothing of each set ("W. B.) 
from dictation. Mammals are clothed with fur, hair, wool, or skin 
only. Birds are clothed with feathers ; some have an undergar- 
ment of down. Beptiles with a thick skin, scales, or shelly plate. 
Fish, with thin scales. 



358 LESSONS ON ANIMALS. FOURTH STEP. 

III. Adaptation. — Let the children imagine a creature like a 
horse, with a covering of feathers. "Why they would not suit 
him ? They would be much too warm. With a covering of 
scales not warm enough, yet would check perspiration. Refer to 
the condition of horses after a gallop ; the structure of their skin, 
&c. With a shelly covering ; this, by its weight and stiffness, 
would impede motion. The horse has a skin just suited to it. But 
feathers are the covering for the eagle — why ? Scaly plates for a 
crocodile — why ? A thick, hairless skin for an elephant — why ? 
Scales for a mackerel — why ? Why jointed ? Go over the list, 
leading the children to see the adaptation in each case. One can- 
not do this without reference to the infinite wisdom and goodness 
of God manifested in this adaptation. 

A series of lessons corresponding to the last should be given, 
thus : 

1. Limbs of animals, and their movements. 

2. Localities (general) in which animals are found. 

3. Breathing, and circulation of blood. 

4. Form in which the young first appear. 

5. Finally, the children should be led to distinguish verte* 
brated animals from others, and to put them into the four great 
divisions : 

Mammals. Birds. Reptiles. Fishes. 

The teacher can proceed in the same way with invertebrated 
animals. It is evident, however, that the later courses must be- 
come less full, and more general, than the earlier ones. 

In conclusion, the scholar should be led to recognize all the 
groups as component parts of the one great system of animated 
nature. See Mrs. Redfield's " Chart of the Animal Kingdom." 



LESSONS ON PLANTS. 



DESIGNED AS THIRD STEP LESSONS. 

On the Nature of Plants. 

The teacher should be prepared with an object for the lesson 
selected from each grand division of the natural kingdom ; as, a 
plant, an animal, and a stone. Call upon the children to observe 
that the three are very different. Tell them to find out something 
which may be said of all of them, but which could not be said of 
a hat, a knife, or a watch. The plant, the animal, and the stone, 
were made as they are by God ; man did not make them. We 
call them natural* To which of the three objects are you most 
like ? In what respect do you and the plant differ from the 
stone ? What will some day happen both to you and to the 
plant, which never can happen to the stone ? We and the plant 
shall die. (See that the children understand, that when we speak 
of death, as applied to plants, we mean that they cease to live, 
and then decay.) In what, then, does the stone differ from ani- 
mals and plants ? The stone has not life. What can } r ou say of 
a vegetable ? That it has life. What do living things need to 
support their life ? Food. Where do animals take in their food ? 
By what organ ? By the mouth. Where do vegetables take in 
their food ? By what organ ? By their roots. In what, then, 

* It is not expected that the children will so immediately arrive at this con- 
clusion, but the question is suggested in order to show that the idea is to be 
drawn from them, their minds being stimulated and directed by the questioning 
of the teacher. The answers are inserted in order to indicate the point to which 
they are to be brought. 



360 LESSONS ON TLANTS. 

do animals and vegetables differ from stones ? Animals and vege- 
tables require food to support life ; but stones have no life which 
might need support. In what do animals differ from vegetables ? 
Animals take in their food by the mouth, but vegetables by the 
root. "What other benefits do these derive from food ? Besides 
that of being kept alive by it, it makes them grow. "What are 
animals able to do, that cannot be done by vegetables ? What 
does a lion, when he is hungry ? What a hare, when pursued by 
clogs ? What do you in the playground ? For whose pleasure 
do you run or jump ? You move about when you like. Thus 
you find that animals can move at pleasure from place to place. 
But is this the case with vegetables ? Suppose a plant drooping 
for water, and that there was water near, could it get at it ? 
Why not ? Because it is fixed to one spot in the earth. 

Tell me all that you have found out regarding plants, by com- 
paring them with animals and stones. Vegetables are made — by 
God;* we therefore call them — natural; they have — life ; their 
life is supported by — food ; this they take in at their — roots ; food 
makes them — grow ; they are fixed to one spot in — the earth, and 
cannot — move about — as — they please. 

There should be a simultaneous repetition of this by all the 
children, to fix it well in their memories. 



The Several Parts of a Plant. 

Commence with questions on the preceding lesson, as to how 
a plant is distinguished, with a repetition of the summary ; then 
lead the children to find out the principal parts of a plant. These 
are, the root, stems, leaves, blossom, fruit or seed vessel, seeds. 
The names of these should be written down, and frequently simul- 
taneously repeated. The relative position of the different parts, 
and the period in the existence of the plants at which they seve- 
rally appear, might form the subject of conversation. 

* The words in italics are to be given by the children. The ellipsis is very- 
useful in maintaining attention and interest in the summing up of a lesson. 



LESSONS ON PLANTS. 361 

THE ROOT. 

1. The Use of the Root to the Plant, as an Organ of Nourishment. 

The children should have several roots and pictures of roots to 
examine. They should be led to observe that they all have fibres, 
and they may be informed that these fibres are the true roots, and 
that at the end of each of them there is a substance like sponge. 
If questioned as to the properties of sponge, and as to the use of 
such a substance to the plant, they may be led to discover that 
these spongioles, as they are called, suck up from the earth, as so 
many mouths, the moisture which nourishes the plant. The class 
may be led to observe how very suitable such a substance is for 
the office it has to perform, and that, while God has withheld from 
plants the power of moving about to get their food, He has pro- 
vided a beautiful compensation by furnishing them with a multi- 
tude of mouths, each of them placed at the end of a long fibre, 
and that these stretch out in all directions. The observation of 
this fact, and the proof it affords of the providential care of the 
Creator, should be drawn from the children. They may also find 
out the reason why gardeners, when they transplant roots, are 
careful not to injure these fibres. If all the fibres of the root 
were destroyed, the plant must die, for it could not obtain nourish- 
ment. 

2. The Use of the Root in Fixing the Plant in the Earth. 

The children, having considered the root as an organ of nour- 
ishment, should next consider it as to its office of supporting the 
plant while growing in the earth. Its position is under ground ; 
it is the lowest part of the plant. When a seed begins to grow, 
it sends downward a root, avoiding light, and seeking moisture. 
The children should find out of what use the root is in conse- 
quence of its position. They may be led to see that things will 
not stand firmly, if the top be not well balanced by the base. 
How is a plant balanced and fixed firmly ? The roots extend in 
the earth in proportion to the size of the upper part. The roots 
of large trees branch out in all directions, and spread to a very 
16 



362 LESSONS ON PLANTS. 

great distance.* Draw upon the board a tree with its roots, that 
the children may perceive that the wide-spreading branches of the 
root act as a counterpoise to the head, and even extend beyond the 
boughs. Lead them to see that there is a reason why the mouth 
of the roots should stretch beyond the foliage, for they are thus 
enabled to obtain the moisture which the earth receives from the 
rain, which does not penetrate generally through the foliage near 
the trunk. How wise a provision for the plant is this extension 
of its roots ! Let the children gather from this where a large 
plant should be watered ; not, of course, just at the stem, but at a 
short distance, that the water may reach the spongioles of the 
roots. 



3. The Use of the Root in carrying off Waste and Injurious Matter. 

The plant not only receives suitably nourishment, but also 
throws off waste and hurtful matter by the root ; it is not, there- 
fore, desirable to continue sowing the same seed year after year in 
the same spot, because the soil has been rendered unfit for the 
growth of the new plants by the matter rejected at the roots of 
former ones. Some different kind of seed should be chosen for 
each spot under cultivation, for it has been found by experience, 
that matter which one kind of plant rejects as injurious, is often 
suitable for the food of plants of a different species.f The system 
of agriculture pursued by the Israelites might here be mentioned, 
and the law as to land remaining fallow every seventh year might 
be read to the class. They might be led to see the value of this 
law to this people, who knew neither the advantage of a rotation 
of crops, nor the mode of enriching the earth by manures. This 
law, also, conveyed to them a spiritual lesson, for they were taught 
by types and shadows. 

* Teachers may give great interest to their lessons by drawing on the board 
before the children diagrams of the subject of them. 

t This fact is beyond the sphere of the children's observation ; it must, there- 
fore, be told them ; but the observation on the consequences may be drawn from 
them, as a reason for a rotation of crops. 



LESSONS ON PLANTS. 363 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF ROOTS. 

The Globose Root. 

The children should be shown specimens of different kinds of 
roots, and pictures of others. "What have all roots ? What is 
there at the end of the fibres ? What is the use of the spongy 
substance ? Why do plants require so many mouths ? Attention 
should now be drawn to the different forms of roots. First give 
a lesson on the turnip, for instance. The children will observe its 
two principal parts — the fibres, which are the true roots, and the 
thick part, like a globe, from which the root is called the globose 
root. The children already know the use of the fibres and spon- 
gioles, but what is the use of this globe ? It contains a store of 
nourishment for the plant, by means of winch it brings its flower 
and seed to perfection. Where are turnips cultivated ? Of what 
use are they ? What part of the plant is eaten ? When are the 
roots fit for food ? Before the store of nutritious matter which the 
globe contains has been exhausted in maturing the flower and 
seed. All farmers and gardeners are aware of this, and act ac- 
cordingly. 

The Tapering Root. 

Let the children examine the pictures of the various roots ; 
then tell them to select a root of a very different shape from the 
turnip — the carrot — and let them describe this root, its parts and 
shape ; and when it has become familiar, tell them its name — the 
tapering root. They will at once see why it is so named. Which 
are the true roots ? The fibres and their spongioles. This root, 
though of such a different shape, performs the same important 
office to the plant as the globose root. The children can tell what 
this is, and also determine when carrots should be dug up. Let 
them give a list of the tapering roots which are usually cultivated, 
describing the peculiarities of each of them, and how it is distin- 
guished from others. The list should then be written on the 
board. The more common tapering roots are the carrot, parsnip, 
radish, beet, mangel-wurzel, and horse radish. 



364 LESSONS ON PLANTS. 

Tuberous Roots. 

Let the children next examine the roots of the potato plant 
and of the dahlia, which are similar in kind. What are the two 
principal parts ? The fibres and the knobs. How do these roots 
differ from those already considered ? They are composed of sev- 
eral knobs joined together. Yes ; and these knobs differ from 
those of the turnip and parsnip. Find out in what respect they 
differ. Ask the children if they know in what way farmers and 
gardeners plant potatoes ? If they do not, they should be shown 
the little specks on the potatoes, called the eyes. These are 
buds, of the same nature as the buds we see on trees in the spring, 
and at that season they begin to sprout, and the potato in this state 
is not fit for food, being full of black spots. Question the children 
as to the cause of these black spots, and why potatoes at that 
season are not good to eat. They ought to be able to reply, that 
the nourishing matter which made the root a wholesome vege- 
table, is expended in the shoots. The gardener, when he cuts out 
the eye for planting,* takes a portion of the potato with it, which 
affords nourishment to the bud till it has formed roots to obtain 
nourishment for itself. The children will now be able to find out 
the use of the knob (called a tuber) to the plant, and in what state 
the potato is best for food. These roots are called tuberous roots. 
Describe a tuberous root. The dahlia root is of this kind. In the 
spring the tubers send out sprouts, which the gardener cuts out, 
and from these new plants are raised. What a beautiful provision 
it is that the nourishing matter stored up for plants in their roots, 
should be so pleasant and so good for the use of man ! What a 
blessing to the poor that so wholesome a vegetable as the potato 
is so easily cultivated, and that it multiplies so very abundantly ! f 

* A teacher would greatly increase the interest of the lesson, by putting into 
practice what is here described ; planting some potatoes and dahlias, allowing 
some of the children to give assistance, and then observing their after growth. 

t These observations should be drawn from the children. It is the art of the 
teacher to lead them to draw right conclusions and moral reflections from facts 
observed. 



LESSONS ON PLANTS. 365 

Bulbous Roots. 

The children should mention the different roots upon which 
they have had lessons, describing and pointing out each several spe- 
cies.* Does the picture contain any root like those on which les- 
sons have been given ? Yes ; the onion. Show them also a 
tulip, crocus, and snowdrop root. In what respect do they seem 
like the turnip ? Though they appear to be like it, they are really 
different ; for these knobs of the onion, tulip, &c, which are called 
bulbs, contain within them during the winter season the young f 
plant, though of course it is then very small. These bulbs have 
been compared to a winter cradle, as they keep the plant shut up 
snug and warm within them during cold weather. This root is 
called a bulbous root. Describe it. 

Fibrous Roots. 

Let the children say what they observe all roots to have — 
fibres. Let them give examples of roots that have fibres only. 
Let them find a good name for such roots — fibrous roots. Some 
trees have a large tapering root, called the tap root. It descends 
straight into the earth, and from it proceed great branches, termi- 
nating in fibres. A root of this description should be drawn on 
the board, and the children, from what they have before learned, 
will be able to say why such a root is necessary for a tree. 

The concluding lesson on roots should be recapitulatory. The 
children should tell the names of the different roots on which les- 
sons have been given, and these should be written on the board ;J 
then they should be questioned somewhat as follows : What are the 
two principal parts of the globose root ? Of what use are the 
fibres ? Of what use to the plant is the globular part ? When 
is it best for food ? Describe the tapering root. What are its 
principal parts and uses ? In what does it differ from the globose 

* In the first lesson the roots should be brought in and shown the children ; 
but in the subsequent lessons, when they are only referred to, the teacher should 
draw them on the board. 

+ In the spring time, if a root of a tulip be cut longitudinally through the 
middle, the plant may be seen within the bulb. 

% The questions might form the subject of a home exercise. 



366 LESSONS ON PLANTS. 

root ? Of what is the tuberous root formed ? "What is the use 
of the tubers ? How are plants raised from them ? What is the 
most common of these roots ? What is a bulbous root ? What 
use is the bulb to the plant ? What are the different uses of roots 
to plants ? How are they fitted for their different uses ? When 
any one makes an instrument well fitted to perform a difficult 
work, what do we say of him ? And if, in addition, we find that 
he has made it for the use and benefit of others, what more do we 
say of him ? But who made plants, and gave them different 
parts, fitting them to perform different offices, to contribute to the 
comfort of man ? What, then, must we acknowledge God to be ? 
Wise and kind. What does the Bjble tell us of the work of 
God ? Do you remember what God said of everything when first 
made ? " Behold, it was very good." 

STEMS. 

The children should be shown various kinds of stems ; as, a 
piece of a tree, a straw, and a succulent stem — that of a geranium, 
for instance. Let them arrange stems under three heads, describ- 
ing each, and finding examples of it. A name should then be 
given by which they may distinguish each division, and these 
should be written on the board. 

1. Fleshy or soft stems, as' in herbaceous plants and 
annuals. 

2. Straw, as in grains and grasses. 

3. Woody stems, as in trees and shrubs. 

Show the children several specimens of these different stems, 
and encourage them to bring others, and to say to which of the 
three divisions they belong. Draw from them what difference 
they perceive in these stems. 

The fleshy stem is soft, full of juice, generally of a green 
color, and lies down on the ground in winter. What stems of this 
description do we eat ? Celery, rhubarb, sea-kale. Some of these 
stems are very fibrous, and are very useful on this account, the 
fibres being manufactured into articles of dress and furniture. 
This subject should be enlarged upon. A stem of flax and hemp 



LESSONS ON PLANTS. 367 

should be produced, together with a picture of the plant, the un- 
manufactured fibre, and the various substances made from it. The 
children should find out what qualities in the fibre make it thus 
useful. 

Straw is stiff and hollow, having hard joints at regular dis- 
tances, which give it strength, so that while it bends to the wind 
and rises again by its elasticity, it is also able to support the ear. 
From the possession of these properties the grain is continually 
brought under the drying influence of the air, and the ripening 
influence of the sun. Straw is used for bonnets, baskets, mats ; 
for thatching, litter in farmyards, &c. 

The sugar cane is a kind of straw, full of a sweet juice, which 
is squeezed out, boiled, and made into sugar. 

Woody Stems. — The children should have some specimens to 
examine, that they may describe this stem, and tell its parts. It 
is hard, dry, strong, and stiff; its parts are bark, wood, pith.* 
Let them describe a tree. A tree has an upright supporting stem, 
called a trunk ; this is of cylindrical form, tapering upward like a 
pillar, and is admirably suited for supporting a heavy weight. 
From this trunk proceed smaller stems, called branches, and from 
these others still smaller, called twigs, upon which the leaves grow. 
The children should see pictures of the various trees and their 
parts, that they may observe the different manner in which the 
branches grow. After having had lessons on form, they would 
of themselves observe, that the boughs of the oak form nearly a 
right angle with the trunk, whilst in the poplar they form a very 
acute angle ; and they will perceive that it is this which causes 
the great difference in the form and appearance of trees. Let 
them give a list of the names of forest trees, to be written on the 
board, describing also the use of each ; and then give a list of 

* It is needless to point out exactly what the children will be able to tell 
from their own observation, and what must be communicated : well practised 
teachers will find but little in these lessons which they will not be able to get 
from their elder division of pupils, provided they bring in the necessary speci- 
mens, and direct rightly their attention, commencing with questions upon what 
is familiar to them. Whatever information is given should be well engrafted 
upon what was previously known, and the latter should be reproduced by ques- 
tions, answered either viva voce, or at home on paper. 



368 LESSONS ON PLANTS. 

trees that furnish us with eatable fruit. Lead them to observe the 
comfortable shade afforded by trees in the summer, and their ex- 
ceeding beauty. Let them next describe the different parts of the 
woody stem. 

Bark. — Its qualities : Rough, hard, and fibrous, fitted to act 
like clothing to the stem, and to protect it from the effects of the 
weather. Try to discover what the children know of the uses of 
different kinds of bark. Specimens should be brought before 
them, that they may point out the difference in their appearance. 
Show them some tan — it is the bark of the oak. They know its 
use — to tan leather. "What effect has it upon the leather ? It 
draws the fibres closer together, causing the leather to keep out 
wet. Some barks are used as strengthening medicines, and affect 
the human frame something in the same way that tan strengthens 
the leather. Cork is the bark of a peculiar kind of oak. A piece 
of the bark in its natural state should be produced, and the quali- 
ties of cork elicited. 

"Wood. — Its qualities : A new circle is formed every year in 
the wood of a growing tree ; this is seen by the rings ; its uses 
for fuel, for buildings of all kinds, and for furniture ; the qualities 
that fit it for its various uses.* Different woods used for differing 
purposes ; as, oak for ships, posts, &c, on account of its durability 
and hardness ; mahogany for furniture, on account of its beautiful 
color ; pine for housebuilding, &c, on account of its lightness, 
softness, cheapness, and abundance. 

Pitii. — A branch of the alder tree should be shown the chil- 
dren, that they may examine it, and give its qualities. Rushlights 
are made of the pith of rushes dipped in tallow. The poor people 
of England often make their own lights by dipping pith obtained 
from reeds in tallow. Sago, of which nutritious puddings are 
made, is the pith of a palm tree. 

CIRCULATION OF SAP. 

The children should be questioned as to the circulation of the 
blood, its journey from the heart throughout the body and lungs, 

* It is to be recollected that these lessons are only hints for the assistance 
of teachers. 



LESSONS ON PLANTS. 369 

supporting life. They may then be told that plants also have a 
fluid which in a similar manner flows through them, supporting 
and nourishing the life of every part. The root absorbs moisture 
from the ground ; this ascends into the plant, and reaching the 
leaves, undergoes a change, becoming suitable food for the plant ; 
it then descends again, this fluid supplying nourishment to every 
part in its course. It is called sap. 

In addition to food for the plant, juices, which vary in their 
nature in different vegetables, are produced from the sap, some of 
them very useful to man. The children should be questioned 
whether they ever saw juice oozing out of a tree ? They may 
have seen this in fruit trees, or in the oozing of turpentine out of 
deal. The chief of these vegetable juices are gum, resin, vege- 
table milks, acids, oils, tar, turpentine, and water. 

Gums. — Some gum, soft from the tree, and some gum arabic, 
should be shown to the children, and they should say all they 
know of gum, and the trees which yield it. How does it appear 
when oozing out? What effect has the air upon it? "What 
qualities distinguish it? Its adhesiveness; its solubility in water; 
its use as a cement. 

Resins are vegetable products, which ooze out of pines, firs, 
&c. The more common resins are pitch, tar, turpentine. The 
children should see them, and describe their qualities and uses. 
Resins are distinguished from gums by dissolving in spirit of wine, 
but not in water, as the gums do. 

Frankincense — mentioned in Scripture, and used as an in- 
cense, a type of that intercession of Christ which makes our 
prayers acceptable to God — is an aromatic resin. 

Balm of Gilead, also mentioned in the Bible,* and cele- 
brated for its healing properties, is another resin. 

Oils are also vegetable liquids, peculiar to some plants. The 
perfume sent forth by various plants is caused by volatile oils. 
These, when pressed out of the plants containing them, afford us 
fragrant scents. The oils in common use are chiefly obtained from 

* The teacher should refer to the Scriptures, in which these substances are 
spoken of. 

1G* 



370 LESSONS ON PLANTS. 

seeds, in which they exist as nourishment for the tender plant, 
when it first begins to shoot forth. A great deal of oil is obtained 
from nuts, and much also from the seed of flax ; the latter is called 
linseed oil. The oil we use in food is pressed out of the fruit of 
the olive. Lead the children to observe how all nature contributes 
good things to promote the comfort and pleasure of man. It is 
our duty to receive all these as God's gifts. 

The children should have some oil to examine. They should 
find out those qualities which distinguish it from other substances, 
and make it so useful ; no information being given till all they 
know or can discover has been drawn from them. The mind hav- 
ing been thus brought into an active, inquiring state, they will be 
interested in hearing anything new concerning any object which 
may be the subject of instruction. Lessons should always con- 
clude with a summary, in which, by means of the ellipsis, the chil- 
dren should reproduce all they have heard. 

Vegetable Milks. — The children may form some idea of the 
milky substance which is found in many plants, by breaking the 
stem of a spurge. In this plant the milk is of a caustic nature, 
and used to remove warts. The milky fluid of plants is often 
poisonous, producing fatal sleep. It is so in the case of that ob- 
tained from the poppy and lettuce, from which are prepared opi- 
ates, which are used in small doses to relieve pain and to cause 
sleep. 

India rubber is obtained from a kind of laurel tree. "When 
it flows out of the tree it is a milky fluid, but it soon becomes 
thick, and hardens in the air ; it is then dried over the smoke of 
a wood fire, which makes it black. The children should name the 
qualities and uses of India rubber. This vegetable substance has 
of late years been extensively used in rendering cloths impervious 
to air and water, and also in the formation of instruments in which 
elasticity and flexibility are required. 

There is a liquid that flows out of a tree in America, which 
very much resembles the milk of the cow, and the tree is called 
the cow tree. It is a great blessing to the people of that country, 
for it grows in rocky, dry, and barren places, which would not 



LliSSONS ON PLANTS- 371 

produce herbage for cattle. During many months no rain falls 
there, but the tree has dry leathery leaves, which live very long 
without any moisture ; and when the branches look quite dry and 
withered, if the trunk be pierced, there will flow out a sweet, 
nourishing milk ; and at sunrise the natives may be seen hasten- 
ing with their bowls, which are generally the shells of some fruit, 
to obtain this nice vegetable milk. All this must be told the chil- 
dren ; but having previously seen what a vegetable milk is, they 
will be the more interested in the subject. The use to be made 
of the history is the leading them to see how beautifully God pro- 
vides for His creatures, and how exactly He adapts both animals 
and vegetables to the countries in which He places them.* 

Honey. — This is a familiar vegetable juice. The children well 
know how the bee obtains it, and treasures it up in waxen cells, 
and they will be able to tell its qualities. A reference may be 
made to the promise given to the Israelites in the wilderness, that 
the land which God would give them was to be a land flowing 
with milk and honey. They may be led to see that this involved 
its being a land rich in vegetation, possessing abundance of flow- 
ers for the bees, and herbage for the cows, to make both honey 
and milk abundant. We are told that Palestine abounded in these 
aromatic flowers which produce the best honey. 

The stinging power of such plants as the nettle, resides in 
a poisonous liquid contained in a little bag at the bottom of a sharp 
hollow bristle. "When the bristle is struck, this fluid is pressed up 
through it, and flows out through it into any wound the bristle 
may have made in the skin, causing the pain and irritation of the 
sting. 

The children should now name the peculiar juices of plants 

* These facts must be communicated to the children, but the reflection should 
be drawn from them. They should be trained to perceive and acknowledge the 
goodness of the Creator in his works. We are all ready enough to find out de- 
fects, and to express discontent at blessings withheld, whilst our innumerable 
daily mercies are received as a matter of course, without a thought. What we 
have to encourage in children, is, a quick perception of the wisdom and good- 
ness manifested in the creation and providence of God, and the habit of grate- 
fully acknowledging these ; for feeling is increased by expression, and it is also 
thus communicated to others. 



372 LESSONS ON PLANTS. 

which they have learned, and, by the help of questions, recapitu- 
late the lessons on this subject. They may also be reminded that 
all that would be injurious to the plant is separated from the sap 
and thrown out at the root, and that this, though bad for the plant 
producing it, may not be so for another ; indeed, in some in- 
stances, that which is injurious to one kind of vegetable, is bene- 
ficial to another. Thus leguminous or podded plants, such as 
vetches and tares, prepare the soil for corn and grasses. How 
this variety in plants shows the wisdom and goodness of our Great 
Creator ! 

BUDS. 

A variety of buds should be placed before the class, the chil- 
dren being helped to describe what they are. They are little 
bodies which are formed on the surface of vegetables, sometimes 
containing a future shoot, sometimes leaves, sometimes flowers, 
and in some cases leaves and flowers together. They preserve 
the new parts of the plant from the severities of winter, and, 
therefore, are sometimes called winter cradles. 

The leaves are often ciiriously folded within the bud, where, as 
the children may discover by examination of each on the outside, 
are generally hard scales. These are only the outer leaves, which, 
having been chilled and checked in their growth, become stiff and 
hard, and curve inward, thus forming scales that protect the inner 
leaves. This occurs only in cold climates, where such protection 
is necessary, and thus a simple yet beautiful provision is given the 
plant for self-preservation. Besides this, the young leaves are 
often surrounded within the bud by a cottony substance, which 
resists the cold. They are also sometimes covered with a clammy 
varnish, which protects them from the rain, as is the case in those 
of the horse chestnut. In what position are buds formed ? The 
children may discover that it is at the angle formed between a leaf 
stalk and a stem. The reason of this is, that here the sap, when 
passing from the leaves, does not flow so easily. It is stopped, 
and a little accumulation is formed, which is the cause of a bud 
being produced. This takes place in the summer and autumn. 
In spring the warmth of the sun causes the bud to expand, and to 



LESSONS ON PLANTS. 



373 



draw up the sap from the parts below, which are again supplied 
by the parts still lower, and thus the sap in the plant is set in mo- 
tion, and this is what is called the flow of the sap. This might be 
made clear to the children by drawing on the board a plant with 
buds, and pointing out the course taken by the sap. 

The Use of Buds. — They are not only useful in keeping the 
future shoots alive during the winter season, but they afford also 
the means of multiplying plants. Each bud is a complete little 
plant in itself, having within it everything necessary for the exist- 
ence of the plant that springs from it, together with the power of 
sustaining life under favorable circumstances.* Gardeners know 
this, and cutting off the bud from one plant, they place it in a cut 
upon the stem of another, the sap of which flows into the bud, 
causing it to grow. This operation is called budding. Plants are 
also raised by laying a branch under ground, that the buds it con- 
tains may send roots downward and shoots upward ; then, when 
the branch is cut off from the old plant, it becomes a new plant. 
It is from this power of life in the buds that plants can be raised 
from slips. Vegetables, indeed, are full of buds, and this is a most 
wise provision for their preservation. They cannot defend them- 
selves, or flee from their enemies as animals can, for they are fixed 
to one spot. How has God made up for this ? He has furnished 
them with a multitude of buds, each of which is capable of repro. 
ducing life, so that a plant may be cut in every direction, or 
stripped of all its branches, and yet, if any bud remain, there still 
is left a source of life, from which new shoots may be produced. 
When a shrub has been cut down to the ground, it will often 
spring up vigorously the year following, because some buds have 
been left on its stump. How beautifully has the all-wise Creator 
suited everything to the situation in which it is placed, and to the 
work it has to perform ! Each leaf and each bud proclaims His 
wisdom and goodness. "When we see His wonders of creation, 
shall we not praise and glorify him ? Yes. He has declared that 

* Some of these facts may be rather difficult for the children to understand ; 
anything that may prove to be beyond their capacity may be omitted ; but it is 
very desirable to give them a reason for the common operations they may see 
practised by gardeners and farmers. 



37i LESSONS ON PLANTS. 

His praise shall come even out of the mouth of babes and suck- 
lings ! 

There are three kinds of buds : those which produce the flower 
only, others that produce only leaves and branches, and a third 
description which develop botli leaves and flowers. A good gar- 
dener knows how to promote the formation of the flower buds, 
which afterward produce the fruit. When the sap flows through 
the tree rapidly, it forms the most leaf buds ; but when it flows 
more slowly, it becomes richer and thicker, and forms flower buds. 
By training the branches of the tree horizontally, the gardener 
causes the sap to flow more slowly than it would do were they up- 
right, and thus he obtains more flower buds, and, consequently, 
more fruit. 

The picture of the garden will be found useful in explaining 
and illustrating these and other occupations of the gardener. 

LEAVES. 

The children should examine some leaves, and find out the 
parts of a leaf ; as, the upper and under surface, the leaf stalk, the 
limb (that is, the whole expansion), the point or termination, the 
edge, the mid-rib, the veins. They should next be led to observe, 
from some well-selected specimens,* how these parts are charac- 
terized, and in what they differ in different plants. The upper 
surface of the leaf is generally smooth and bright, and of a darker 
color than the under surface, which is dull ; the middle rib is fur- 
rowed or grooved at the upper surface, and keeled or ridged at the 
under surface. The course of the veins is sometimes direct from 
the leaf stalk to the termination ; in other cases they form quite a 
net-work. Whenever a vein pushes out very strongly, it forces 
out a part of the limb, and in this way is caused the variety in the 
form of leaves.f All this, under a little guidance, may be discov- 
ered by the children themselves. The edge of a leaf is sometimes 

* The children's interest will be increased if they are encouraged to bring 
specimens for their lesson. 

t The more of these facts the children discover themselves, the greater will 
be their pleasure in the lesson ; in this way also an inquiring habit of mind will 
be promoted. 



LESSONS ON PLANTS. 375 

quite plain or entire, sometimes very finely toothed, and sometimes 
the teeth are large ; sometimes it is scallopped, sometimes jagged, 
sometimes hairy. The shape of leaves varies greatly. The chil- 
dren should determine, as nearly as they can, the shape of differ- 
ent leaves. 

Leaves are curiously arranged on the stalks which bear them. 
Each of them has generally a leaf stalk, but sometimes they grow 
on the stem without this, and are then said to be sessile, or sitting. 
Sometimes they sheathe the stem, as in the grasses ; sometimes 
two leaves are joined together, and the stem pierces through the 
pair ; sometimes they grow in opposite pairs on the stem, some- 
times on alternate sides, sometimes scattered, sometimes they sur- 
round the stem in a circle or whorl. The knowledge of these 
facts is of very minor importance, but such subjects furnish teach- 
ers with the means of calling out the observation of their pupils, 
and of encouraging habits that tend to render all nature interest- 
ing, thus putting the mind in possession of cheap and improving 
pleasure. 

The Use of Leaves to the Plant. — Ask the children what 
effect exercise in hot weather produces upon the skin ? Plants 
also perspire, and it is by means of their leaves that this healthy 
operation is carried on. Plants thus lose two thirds of the mois- 
ture absorbed at their spongioles. The fluid they perspire is nearly 
pure water ; the thicker and more nourishing portions of the sap 
remain in the plant. Vegetables perspire the most in the sun- 
shine ; it is on this account that gardeners always protect newly 
transplanted plants from the rays of the sun, because, as the roots 
are not at such a time in a state to suck up much moisture, it is 
desirable that the leaves should not be giving off much fluid ; for 
if the plant part with its moisture more rapidly than it is able to 
replenish it, it will wither and die. The children will be able to 
give the reason for this when they are told the fact. 

Leaves perform to the plant the same office which the lungs 
perform for animals ; they draw in that particular air which is 
good for their support, and throw off that which is waste and inju- 
rious. It is in the leaves also that the sap is made fit for nourish- 



376 LESSONS ON PLANTS. 

ing the plant ; just as in the stomach, food is rendered suitable for 
the sustenance of animal life. 

Use of Leaves to Man. — The children will be able to find 
out much on this subject. It is the leaves that make trees so beau- 
tiful and so valuable for shade and protection from the weather. 
Our gracious Creator has given to trees such differing leaves as 
adapt them to different climates. On mountains where the snow 
is constantly falling, grow the firs and pines, the clusters of whose 
needle-shaped leaves allow the snow to fall between them ; for the 
weight of the snow would soon break down boughs that were 
covered with broad leaves. Again, Ceylon, which is a country at 
one season deluged with rain, and at another parched with heat, 
has a tree called the fan palm, a single leaf of which is sufficiently 
large to afford shelter for twelve or fifteen people. 

Leaves useful fob Food. — Many kinds of leaves are good 
for food, as those of the cabbage, spinach, endive, lettuce, parsley, 
turnip, mustard and cress, &c. The leaves of the tea plant pro- 
duce an agreeable drink ; those of the senna, and others, are used 
as medicine. Tobacco and snuff are formed of leaves. Cattle 
feed upon grass, clover, turnip leaves, &c. 

THE FLOWER.* 

Lesson 1. 

A variety of flowers being produced, the teacher takes up one 
of them, and asks, What is this? It is a flower. A perfect 
flower has four principal parts ; try and find them out. What do 
you observe in these flowers ? The teacher holds up a wall flower 
and a primrose. The colored leaves. These colored leaves of 
the flower form what is called the corolla. What is the first part 
of the flower that I am to write down on the board? The 
" corolla," 

What else do you see as I hold up these flowers ? Some 

* The two following lessons on the flower were drawn out fully at the request 
of the teacher, and may serve to show the mode in which it is intended that such 
instruction should be given. 



LESSONS ON PLANTS. 377 

green leaves at the bottom of the corolla. Are they green in the 
wall flower ? No. "What is their general color ? They are most 
frequently green. Of what use do these little leaves seem to be 
to the corolla ? They hold its colored leaves together. What 
vessel do you think these leaves at all like ? They are something 
like a cup. Yes ; that part of the flower that holds the blossom 
is called the cup* What shall I now write under the word 
" corolla " ? " The cup." 

Now observe what 1 do to this flower, and tell me. You 
have pulled off the corolla and the cup. I did this that you might 
see what was within them. What do we find there ? A little 
thing in the middle, with a round ball at the top. That little 
thread-like thing in the middle is called the pistil. Repeat this 
word together. What shall I write down ? " The pistil." Now 
we will look for the pistils in the other flowers. Where shall I 
find them ? In the middle, within the blossom. The pistil is a 
very important part of the flower. We will talk a little more 
about it some other time. 

Do you see anything besides the pistil within the corolla? 
Yes ; several little things like threads round the pistil. These are 
called stamens. Repeat the name together. Let us find out the 
stamens in the other flowers. What shall I write on the board ? 
" Stamens." 

Of how many parts of a flower are the names now written 
down ? Of four parts. What are these four things which I have 
written on the board ? The four principal parts of a flower. Re- 
peat them over together. Name each part as I touch it. You 
shall tell me now where each part is placed in the flower Where 
do you find the pistil ? Within the corolla, in the middle of the 
flower. Where do you find the stamens ? Within the corolla, 
and round about the pistil. Where is the corolla ? It surrounds 
the stamens and pistil. Where is the cup ? On the outside of 
the corolla, at the bottom of it ; the corolla rises out of it. 

What part of the flower seems to be the most carefully pro- 
tected ? The pistil. How is the pistil protected ? By having 
all the other parts of the flower placed around it. Why is it so 

* Calyx. 



378 LESSONS ON PLANTS. 

carefully guarded ? You said that it was a very important part 
of the flower. Can you tell me when it is that the blossom and 
cup still more carefully guard the pistil and stamens, by being 
folded close around them ? When the flower is in bud. "When 
do your mothers take the most care of you, and are most afraid of 
any harm coming to you ? When we are little babies. Yes ; 
when you are young and helpless, then your mothers take the 
most care of you, and try to keep you from all harm ; and so 
when the pistil and stamens are very young and tender, they are 
beautifully covered and folded up within the corolla and cup. 
Look at this bud. See how nicely the leaves are folded around 
the pistil, sheltering it from cold and rain. 

Who made this pretty flower ? God. Do not use that word 
lightly ; think of what you are saying, and speak with reverence. 
The great God, who made the world we live in, the sun, and the 
moon, and the stars, made also this little flower ; and what does 
the examination of this little flower teach us about the great God ? 
That He takes care of that which He makes. And what does the 
Bible teach us — if He takes care of the flowers, what will He do 
for us ? Much more will He care for us. Now tell me what you 
have to-day learned about a flower ? We have learned its four 
principal parts. What are these ? The corolla, the cup, the pis- 
til, and the stamens. What more have you learned ? We have 
seen where the several parts are placed. What did you learn 
from the consideration of the flower ? That God takes care of all 
His works. 

Lesson 2. 

What are the four principal parts of a flower ? Where is each 
part placed ? Each of these principal parts of a flower has also 
some smaller parts belonging to it. Look at the corolla of this 
wall flower ; of what is it formed ? Of leaves. In what do those 
parts of a plant which are generally called its leaves differ from 
these ? They are generally green, and are larger and thicker than 
these. And what can you say of these in the corolla of these 
flowers ? They are of different colors. Where are green leaves 
placed? On the stems of plants. Where those of different 



LESSONS ON PLANTS. 379 

colors ? On the flower itself. These leaves that form the corolla 
are called petals. Write the word on the board under the names 
of the other parts. 

The teacher shows the children several flowers, and says, Tell 
me in what other respect these petals vary, as well as in color. 
They vary in shape. Find out something more in which the 
corollas vary, besides in the color and shape of the petals. They 
vary in the number of their petals. How many petals has the 
wall flower ? Four. How many the heart's-ease ? Five. (The 
teacher pulls the petals ofF one by one to sIioav the number.) 
Now observe when I pull off the corolla of the primrose or that 
of this periwinkle. These flowers have each but one petal. The 
primrose has but one colored leaf, but does it look like one petal ? 
No, teacher; it looks as if several petals had been joined together. 
Yes ; the petals are so joined together as to form one. 

Then you find that a corolla may consist of — £>efa?s — that are 
— -joined together, — and form only — one portion ; of — petals — that 
are — separate. I shall be pleased with any one who will bring 
me to-morrow a corolla with its petals joined together into one 
piece, and another with its petals separate. In what respect have 
you found out that a corolla may vary ? In the color, form, and 
number of its petals, and in their being joined together or separate. 

"What is that part of the flower which is outside the corolla ? 
The cup. Of what is the cup formed ? Of small leaves. These 
little leaves you may call leaflets* of the cup. Repeat this name 
together. "What shall I write down as another part of a flower ? 
" Leaflets of the cup." Where shall I write this name ? Under the 
word " petals." What is the general color of the leaflets ? They 
are green. Now observe these cups, and you will find out in them 
something like that which you remarked in the blossom. In some 
of these the leaflets are joined together, in others they are sepa- 
rate. 

Tell me the name of another part you noticed in the flower. 
The pistil. And what did I tell you was a very important part 
of the flower ? The pistil. Now observe its parts : here is the 
large pistil of a tulip ; but as, perhaps, you will scarcely perceive 

* Sepals. 



380 LESSONS ON PLANTS. 

the different parts, I will draw one on the board. How many 
parts do you observe in the pistil ? Three. "Which are these ? 
There is something at the top of it. That is called the stigma. 
Repeat the word together. What more ? A kind of stalk. You 
may call it the stem* of the pistil. What is the other part ? A 
thicker part at the bottom. That is the seed vessel.f Now tell 
me the names of the three parts of the pistil, that I may write 
them also on the board. The stigma, the stem, the seed vessel. 
Now can you guess why I said that the pistil is a most important 
part of the flower ? Because it contains the seed vessel. Where 
do we learn that God provided for the continuance of plants, by 
giving to each of them its own seed ? In the first chapter of the 
Book of Genesis. God tells you this in His Word, and by ex- 
amining His work you find what care He has taken to preserve 
the seed vessel. How is it protected ? By its being placed 
within the corolla and the cup. Which is the more delicate of 
these two parts ? The corolla. And where is the corolla placed ? 
Within the cup. All the works of our Heavenly Father, from 
the smallest flower up to man himself, display His wisdom and 
goodness. Now repeat the names of the several parts of the 
pistil. The stigma, the stem, the seed vessel. 

Which of the principal parts of the flower have you not yet 
examined ? The stamens. Where are the stamens placed ? 
Round the pistil. Here is a stamen taken out of this tulip ; but 
see, I draw it on the board. What several parts do you observe 
in this ? A thick part at the top. This is called the anther. 
Repeat this word together. The anther is like a little bag. Did 
you ever notice, that when you shake a flower, something comes 
out of it ? Yes ; some yellow dust. This dust or powder, which is 
very often yellow, comes out of these little bags ; it is called pollen. 
Repeat this word. What is the pollen ? It is a kind of yellow 
dust. Where is it found ? Upon the anther. The use of this 
pollen is to perfect and nourish the seeds ; as it falls from the 
anthers, it is caught upon the stigma of the pistils, which is always 
a little sticky, and porous like a sponge. The children should try 
and find out the reason for its being sticky, and also for its being 
* Style. + Germ, or Ovary. 



LESSONS ON PLANTS. 381 

porous. But there is another part of the stamen you have not 
mentioned ; what is this ? The stem. "What, then, are the three 
parts of a stamen ? The anther, the pollen, and the stem. 

Now you shall repeat all you know about a flower. How 
many principal parts has a flower, and what are they called ? 
There are four principal parts of a flower, called severally the 
corolla, the cup, the pistil, the stamens. Hew are they placed ? 
The cup outside everything, the corolla within the cup, the pistil 
in the middle of the flower, and the stamens round about the pistil. 
Of what is the corolla composed ? It is composed of petals. 
How do petals differ ? They differ in form, color, number, and in 
being joined or separate. Of what is the cup formed ? Of leaf- 
lets. "What did you learn about leaflets ? They are generally 
green, and, like the petals forming the corolla, are sometimes 
united and sometimes separate. What are the parts of the pistil ? 
The stigma, stem, and seed vessel. What are the parts of the 
stamen ? The anther, the pollen, and the stem. What did you 
learn about the stamens and pistil ? That the pollen falls on the 
stigma of the pistil, which is sticky and like a sponge, and the use 
of the pollen is to perfect the seeds. What did you learn of God 
from examining a flower ? That even a little flower shows His 
wisdom and His goodness. 

FRUIT. 

What law was made by God in the beginning of all things, to 
provide for the reproduction of vegetation? That herbs should 
yield seed, and the fruit tree fruit after his kind, whose seed is in 
itself. Each plant, by the law of God, is to produce its own seed, 
that it may be continued on the earth, and the seed is contained in 
a seed vessel. When are the seed vessel and its seed found on the 
plant ? After the flower has been perfected, and has perished. 
It is by means of the flower that the seed is brought to perfection. 
The children are to be led to perceive, that when the different 
parts of the flower have performed their work, they wither and 
fall, and are succeeded by the seed vessel and seed. The former 
is the increased germ of the pistil ; when matured, it is properly 



382 LESSONS ON PLANTS. 

called the fruit, though that name is generally confined to such 
seed vessels as are eaten. The children should be shown a variety 
of seed vessels. They will see that they vary much in different 
plants. They should try to describe them. In many plants the 
seed vessel is nothing more than a dry case to contain the seeds, as 
in the poppy, the violet, the convolvulus. In the pea plant it is a 
pod. The particular pod of the cruciform flower is called a sillicle. 
The drupe is a fruit or seed vessel, formed of a soft, pulpy sub- 
stance, which incloses a nut with a kernel, as the cherry, plum, 
peach, &c. The nut is a hard shell inclosing a kernel. The pome 
consists of a fleshy substance, inclosing a core containing cells in 
which the seeds, called pips, are placed ; as, the apple, pear, &c. 
The berry contains the seed inclosed in a soft pulpy substance ; as, 
the currant, the gooseberry, &c. Sometimes a number of berries 
are joined together to form the fruit, as in the raspberry, black- 
berry, &c. The cone consists of hard stiff scales, each covering a 
seed, as in the fir. Let the children name all the fruits that are 
eaten. 

THE SEED. 

What seems to be the most important work a plant has to 
accomplish ? To bring its seed to perfection. Let the children 
try to find out the means taken to accomplish this. The richest 
sap goes to the production of the blossom. The parts of the blos- 
som that form the seed are beautifully protected ; the seed is in- 
closed in a case ; the pulp of the fruit is for the nourishment of 
the seed, as well as for its protection. There are many beautiful 
contrivances for scattering seed over the face of the earth, in all 
of which the careful providence of the Almighty is manifested. 
The children will be able to recollect instances of this in the dan- 
delion, groundsel, and thistle. The down that surrounds these 
seeds acts like wings, and the wind wafts them over the fields ; 
they also adhere to the shaggy clothing of sheep, and other ani- 
mals, and are carried to other spots by them ; and also by birds, 
and even by insects. Though these plants are considered only as 
weeds, they form the food of many birds and quadrupeds, and 
when they decay they prepare the earth for more useful vegeta- 



LESSONS ON PLANTS. 383 

tion. The seeds of some trees are furnished with a thin scale, and 
the wind easily wafts them here and there. Everything in crea- 
tion manifests the contriving wisdom of the Almighty, and His 
care for all His creatures. What should this teach us ? To 
praise Him, and to trust in Him. The children should name all 
the seeds that are useful to man. The growth of the seed. "What 
part has man in making it grow ? He prepares the earth, and 
puts in the seed. What more does it need ? Warmth and mois- 
ture. Who alone can send these ? Whose Messing, then, should 
we seek when we sow our seeds ? Whom should we thank, if 
they yield a plentiful supply ? The seed, when it is placed in the 
ground, begins to swell and decay ; it then sprouts, and its own 
decaying matter at first feeds the young shoot ; this sends a root 
downward and a stem upward. Through the porous earth it re- 
ceives the air and moisture it requires, and is kept from the light, 
which would prevent its growth. 

In all the above lessons, the parts spoken of should invariably 
be presented to the class. 

It would be desirable that the children should learn to distin- 
guish a few of the principal families of plants ; as, the corns, peas, 
the cruciform, rosaceous, liliaceous flowers, and others, which 
should be taken up in the next grade or Step. 



MORAL INSTRUCTION. 



The axiom enunciated by Pestalozzi as the basis of his sys- 
tem, is, that " education has to deal with the heart, the head, and 
the hand ; " and therefore, to be complete, it must be moral, Intel- 
factual, and physical. He wisely gives the heart the first place ; 
the wise Solomon also says, ;i Out of it are the issues of life." 

All moral instruction must be founded on the truths of the 
Gospel. 

In the First Step, the teacher seeks to awaken the moral 
sense ; to lead the child to distinguish right from wrong ; to make 
moral impressions, thus preparing for religious impressions. 

In the Second Step, the child learns to distinguish, appreciate, 
and name moral qualities. 

In the Third Step, the child is led to consider moral conduct, 
and to distinguish moral character. He continues to observe moral 
qualities, not as isolated, but as constituting character. 

In the Fourth Step, the child proceeds to consider the relations 
of moral qualities, the basis on which moral conduct ought to rest ; 
its results. In short, he commences the study of moral principles. 

FIRST STEP. 

MORAL IMPRESSIONS. 

1. Sketch on Habits of Order. 

I. — Bring before the children several objects ; as, a cup, sau- 
cer, spoon, chair, tray and snuffers, candle and candlestick. 



JIOKAL INSTRUCTION. — FIRST STEP. 385 

Let a child arrange them properly ; *. c, the cup in the saucer, 
the spoon in the saucer toward the right hand, the chair against 
the wall, the candle in the candlestick, and the snuffers in the 
tray. 

Show them, that if the cup, spoon, &c, were placed on the 
table instead of in the saucer, the table would not look tidy. 
Show them how disorderly it is to leave chairs in the middle of 
the room ; also how untidy it appears, if, instead of finding the 
candle in the candlestick, and the snuffers in the tray, we find 
them on the table. S. R. : " Things used in the house are to be 
kept in their places." 

Teacher mentions different things ; as, broom, tea kettle. 
Children mention their places. 

II. — Exercise the children in folding different articles ; as, 
dusting cloth, papers. Ask what they do with their clothes when 
they go to bed ? Some children drop them on the floor, and leave 
them in a heap ; some fold them up ; others smooth them, and 
hang them over the back of a chair. Children say what ways 
are wrong, and what right ; also where clothes not in use ought 
to be kept. S. R. : " Clothes not worn are to be folded up and 
put away." Children name articles they can fold. 

III. — Exercise the children on the proper way of sitting in 
their seats. Lead them to observe how much nicer they look 
when sitting with their hands folded, each child behind another, 
than when they are spread over the seat irregularly. S. R. : 
" Children to sit upright and evenly in their seats." 

Children show what is meant by sitting uprightly ; by sitting 
evenly. 

Students construct sketch on " Habits of Obedience," as 
" Order." 

2. Sketch on a Bird's Nest, and Bird-nesting. 

Object of the Lesson. — To illustrate the cruelty of robbing a 
nest. 

First, exhibit the picture, and let the children point out the 
17 



386 MORAL INSTRUCTION. FIRST STEP. 

various objects represented in it, and tell the name of each of 
them. 

I. The Nest. — "What is it ? The place where the bird lays 
her eggs, and the home of the young birds when they are hatched. 
"What kind of a home is it, and of what shape ? Why is it hoi- 
low, and why so soft inside ? By whom is it made ? How does 
the bird make it ; has it hands ? How is its beak fitted for mak- 
ing a nest ? The nest is made of moss, hay, pieces of wool, 
straw, hair, leaves, feathers, &c. Why is it not built of stone, or 
of wood ? How is the bird able to make its nest ? It is taught 
by God how to build it. It obtains the materials for the nest by 
flying here and there to seek them, and then weaves them to- 
gether with its beak. It places its nest between the branches of 
a tree, or in a hedge, or against a house, or sometimes even on 
the ground. 

Tell the children that a little bird once built its nest in a lofty 
tree, and laid five eggs in it. When the eggs were hatched, the 
young birds came out of them. At first they had no feathers, and 
were very, very small. The old bird used to fly away to get them 
food, and when she returned, she found them all with their mouths 
wide open to receive it. Then this good mother used to cover 
her little ones with her wings, and keep them warm. One day, 
while she had gone to seek a meal for her hungry little ones, two 
boys, who were seeking for birds' nests, came to the tree in which 
this nest was, and soon perceived it ; so they climbed up the tree, 
and just as one of them had seized the nest, and torn it from its 
place, the poor mother bird returned. What sorrow must she 
have felt, when she saw her little ones carried away by cruel, 
thoughtless boys, who did not leave her even one to nurse and 
watch over ! And the poor little birds, taken from their mother's 
tender care, what will become of them ? 

II. Application. — Question the class as to the conduct of the 
boys. What did they do? What was there in their conduct 
that was wrong ? What disposition did they manifest ? If any 
child should ever feel tempted to take a bird's nest, what should 
such an one remember ? 



MORAL INSTRUCTION. — FIRST STEP. 387 

Students construct a sketch on " Saving Crumbs, and Feeding 
Birds," as " Bird's Nest, and Bird-nesting." 

3. Matter of a Sketch on Behavior in Different Places and Cir- 
cumstances. 

I. — Children are sometimes in schoolroom, sometimes in play- 
ground, at home, at church, and sometimes in the streets. 

II. — At school, it is right to sit still and pay attention to what 
the teacher says, or to speak when questioned ; to put out the 
hand before answering ; to keep one's own place. It is wrong to 
play, to talk to each other, to eat apples, &c, to be in any way 
inattentive. 

III. — In the playground it is right to have a good game ; also 
to go immediately into the schoolroom the moment the bell rings. 
It is wrong to push another down, or to keep the swing all the 
time, when others want it. 

IV. — It is right to be very quiet, to kneel during prayer ; to 
repeat prayers, and to sing aloud ; to pay attention to what the 
clergyman says ; to try to remember something of what they hear. 
The opposite of these things is wrong. 

V. — At home, it is right to listen to parents, and elder broth- 
ers and sisters ; if any one be sick, to wait on her (or him), and 
to make as little noise as possible ; to help mother ; to fetch a 
chair for father when he comes home from work. The opposite 
of these things is wrong. It is wrong, also, to keep the best chair 
or the warmest place by the fire, to make a noise in bed, &c, &c. 

VI. — In the streets, it is right to go straight on ; it is wrong 
to loiter, to throw stones, call people names, or shout after them. 

Students construct matter of sketch on " The Kindness shown 
by Parents, Teachers, and Companions, to Children." as sketch on 
" Behavior." 

4. Sketch on Picture of " Saturday Night." 

I. Point Examined. — Get the children to mention what they 
see in the picture — several people. Their number, sex, and rela- 



388 MOKAL INSTRUCTION. FIRST STEP. 

tionship — there are father, mother, and four children ; viz., a little 
boy, two girls, and a baby. What each is doing — the mother is 
nursing the baby ; how tenderly she holds it ; how careful she i3 
of it. Refer to the kindness of their mothers when they were 
babies. The elder sister is washing the younger ; in what man- 
ner she would do this — kindly, so as not to be rough, or hurt the 
little one ; neatly, so as not to make the room untidy. Who is 
coming into the house ? Who runs to meet him, and why ? 
What the father does to the little boy? What this shows? 
How the girls look? These children love their father, and he 
loves them. What the father has been doing all day, and the day 
before, and all the week, ever since Monday morning ? But now 
his week's work is done, and he will have a day's rest. On what 
day he will rest ? What day comes before Sunday ? This pic- 
ture shows what people do on Saturday night, to be ready for Sun- 
day. What the mother has prepared for the father (shown by 
reference to the two cups and saucers on the table). She will 
take tea with him ; she has waited till he came home. What 
else is on the table ? What on the fire ? What in front of the 
fire ? (the cat.) How she looks ? How the children will treat 
her ? Refer to the bundle the father brings in with him. Chil- 
dren will say what they think it contains — food for their dinner 
on Sunday. How the father has prepared for Sunday ? How 
the mother ? Refer to the appearance of the room. She cleared 
it up before she sat down at the fireside. How the children are 
preparing — they will be nice and clean when Sunday comes. 
How pleasant it will be when they have their clean things on, 
and are ready for church. 

II. Application. — From this, try to impress the children with 
a conviction that no work should be done on Sunday that can be 
helped ; and that everything that can be done on Saturday to pro- 
vide for Sunday, ought to be done. Let the children enumerate 
all the things they can do on Saturday, to prepare for Sunday. 

Students construct sketch on " Picture of Sunday Morning," 
as sketch on " Saturday Night." 



MOKAL INSTRUCTION. — FIRST STEP. 389 

5. Sketch on Picture, " The Blind Girl." 

I. — Exercise perception, in letting the children describe the 
picture. How many persons drawn ? In what alike ? Both 
girls. How they differ ? One is older than the other. "What 
the elder girl is doing ? Walking on a narrow piece of wood 
placed across a stream. Let them look at her face ; her eyes ; 
they will see she is blind. What the little girl is doing ? She 
takes the other's hand, and guides. What would almost surely 
happen to the elder girl, if the younger did not guide her ? 

II. — Exercise conception, by calling out one of the children, 
bidding him shut his eyes, and walk to the door, &c. Why he 
could not go directly and quickly ? Another child sent with closed 
eyes to some other place. Let them all shut their eyes, and by 
such exercises try to lead them to conceive of the nature of blind- 
ness. Lead them to recount things they could not see, if they 
became blind — the sun and moon, the green fields, the beautiful 
flowers, their kind mothers, fathers, sisters, or brothers. Whether, 
in such a case, they would be able to play, and run about as they 
do now ? If they did, what might happen to them ? What they 
would want, whenever they wished to go out ? How sad to be 
blind ! Having excited their feelings of sympathy and compas- 
sion, let them think of circumstances under which they can help 
poor blind people ; as, when they are crossing a street, where 
they might be run over ; or going along a bridge, where they 
might fall into the water. Whom would they then imitate ? (The 
little girl in the picture.) Who would like to imitate her ? 
Whom does such conduct please ? 

Students in training construct sketch on picture, " The Little 
Pilferers," as sketch on "The Blind Girl." 

Plan. I. — In giving a lesson on a picture, it is necessary first 
to exercise the perceptive faculties. Let the children note, 

1. Objects — whether persons or things. 

2. Actions — what each person is doing, &c. 

Children to determine the character of the actions delineated. 



390 MORAL INSTRUCTION. — FIRST STEP. 

II. — Then deduce the story from the observations made, in 
such a manner as will excite interest, and call out sympathy. 

III. — Apply the lesson to their own conduct and circum- 
stances. 

LIST OF SUBJECTS. 

1. Duties to parents : To love them ; to do all they desire ; 
to try to keep in mind their counsels when absent from them ; to 
try to please them ; to speak and act properly toward them ; to 
pray for them, &c. 

2. Duties to teachers : These are to a great extent the same 
as those to parents, with the additional duty of attention to their 
instructions, and of seeking their forgiveness after ill behavior. 

3. Duties to brothers and sisters. Particular acts of kindness 
to schoolfellows and companions. 

4. Duties to the poor, the aged, the infirm, the blind, &c, or 
to those whom they can help in any way whatever. 

5. The duty of doing as they would be done by ; this called 
the " Golden Rule." 

6. The duty of being careful to avoid injuring the property of 
another. 

7. The duty of children to refrain from taking for their own 
use anything, however small it be, that is not clearly their own 
property. 

8. That of avoiding quarrelling and fighting. 

9. The duty of refraining from calling ill names, and from 
usirrg wicked words. 

10. That of being ready to forgive any unkindness done to 
them by another. 

11. The duty of respect to superiors, with conversation as to 
the various occasions on which this is called for, and the mode of 
evidencing respect. 

12. That of not returning evil for evil. 

13. The duty of avoiding selfishness and greediness. 

14. That of behaving rightly and suitably in different places, 
and under different circumstances. 



MORAL INSTRUCTION. SECOND STEP. 391 

It is essential to right moral training, that the instruction bear- 
ing on these several points should be based on the Scriptures ; the 
Word of God being ever made the standard by which to estimate 
good and evil.* 



SECOND STEP. 

MORAL QUALITIES. 

1. Sketch on Industry. [Watts' Hymn, " The Busy Bee") 

Question the children on each verse, endeavoring to make- 
them feel the force of each epithet ; for it is on the appropriate- 
ness of such expressions that one of the chief beauties of poetry- 
depends. 

Verse 1 (read). — What creature is here spoken of? What is 
a bee ? Here the children should describe it, as to its color, the 
form of its body, legs, and wings, and its humming noise. What 
is here said of the bee ? How does it show that it is busy ? 
What are the hours it improves said to be, and why are they de- 
scribed as shining ? When does the bee work ? What is its 
employment all the day ? 

Describe the honey. Where does it get the honey ? How 
are the flowers here described ? Why does the bee choose the 
fresh-blown flowers ? 

What is the character here given of the bee ? It is active, 
industrious, and never idle. How does it prove itself thus indus- 
trious ? What instincts does it show in thus storing up honey for 
after use ? Those of prudence and forethought. 

After such questioning, call upon some of the children to re- 
late in their own words all that is said of the bee in this verse, 
and to decide what those good qualities are of which it is an 
example. 

The force and beauty of this verse consist in the qualifying epi- 
thets — " the little busy bee" — "the shining hours" — " the opening 

* A set of twelve prints, suitable for this step of Moral Instruction, may be 
bought at the publishers. 



392 MORAL INSTRUCTION. SECOND STEP. 

flowers," those just unfolding themselves, and as yet unrifled of 
their sweets. 

Bv such questions the children will be enabled to form a vivid 
conception of the little active bee, humming as it gaily flies from 
flower to flower, busily collecting sweet honey while the sun 
shines. 

Verse 2. — "What is the bee here spoken of as doing, in addi- 
tion to gathering honey ? Of what does she make her cells ? 
"What does she manifest in building her cell ? What is a cell ? 
What does she do with the wax ? What does she show in 
the manner in which she spreads the wax ? What two qualities, 
•both of them necessary to a good workman, does she display in 
her work ? How does she work ? For what purpose does she 
labor ? How is the food described ? What does she exhibit in 
making this provision for future wants ? 

The beauty of this verse consists in the appropriateness of the 
epithets, skilfully, neat, hard, sweet. The children should here 
describe the character and work of the bee ; as active, employ- 
ing every bright hour in collecting honey ; forming its cells in 
regular order with skill and neatness, and laboring hard to fill 
them with suitable provision. The children may be asked what 
those points are in which they may imitate the bee ? They should 
strive to be as skilful and neat as this little insect is. 

Verse 3. — In this verse some good little child is supposed to 
speak. What does he say he will be ? In what kind of works 
will he be busy ? What will he then imitate ? Who will tempt, 
if we are idle ? What will he tempt us to do ? What other 
fault generally accompanies idleness ? The children's experience 
may be appealed to on this point. 

Verse 4. — How should little children employ their time ? 
What should they be when at their books and work ? What is 
here said of play ? What advantage do the young gain from 
play ? What dispositions should children manifest when at their 
play ? To whom must every one give account of the manner in 
which each day is spent ? Of what should this make us careful ? 

Students in training construct sketch on " Honesty," as " In- 
dustry." 



MORAL INSTRUCTION. SECOND STEP. 393 

(Subject-Matter.) "The Honest Woodcutter." 

(1) A man, with many a hearty stroke, 
Was cutting down an ancient oak, 
"When, as he smote, his axe's head 
Far from the handle sped, 

And, to the woodman's great dismay, 
Into the river found its way. 

(2) " Now tell me why," the rustic cried, 
" Thou couldst not on the stick abide ? 
Thou surely mightst have stayed with me, 
At least till I had felled the tree." 

(3) Thus did the man his thoughts express, 
And sat him down in great distress ; 

(4) But had not long reclined himself, 
Before appeared a sprightly elf, 
Who asked " the reason of his grief," 

(5) And said, " I'll quickly bring relief." 
The man explained ; the sprite withdrew, 
Intent his magic power to show. 
Forthwith he dived beneath the stream, 
Full many a fathom-to redeem 

The woodman's hatchet. (6) But, behold ! 
He found one made of solid gold. 
" Is this the tool you lost ? " said he. 
" Oh, no ; that ne'er belonged to me," 
The man replied. " Then," said the sprite, 
" I'll try again to get the right." 
(7) Again he plunged, again emerged, 
And now a silver hatchet urged 
On the poor rustic. (8) He, though lone, 
Too honest was even that to own. 
" Well," said the fairy, " 111 persist, 
Till I obtain the one you've missed." 
Again withdrew, again returned — 
The man with joy his axe discerned. 

11* 



394 MOKAL INSTRUCTION. SECOND STEP. 

(9) Said he, " Thou art a friend in need ; 
This is my very axe indeed." 
"Pray, take it, then," the elf replied, 
And gave the other two beside. 

2. Sketch 0)i Keeping the Sabbath. 

MATTER. 

I. 

Haste ! put your playthings all away ; 
To-morrow is the Sabbath day ; 
Come, bring to me Noah's ark, 
Your pretty tinkling music cart ; 
Because, my love, you must not play, 
But holy keep the Sabbath day. 



Bring me your German village, please, 
With all its houses, gates, and trees ; 
Your waxen doll, with eyes of blue, 
And all her tea things, bright and new ; 
Because, my love, you must not play, 
But holy keep the oJbbath day. 

in. 
Now bring your Sunday pictures down- 
King David, with his harp and crown ; 
Good little Samuel on his knees, 
And many pleasant scenes like these ; 
Because, jou know, you must not play, 
But learn of God upon His day. 

IV. 

Here is your hymn book ; you shall learn 
A verse, and some sweet kisses earn ; 
Your book of Bible stories, too, 
Which dear mamma will teach to you. 



MOEAL INSTRUCTION. SECOND STEP. 395 

I think, although you must not play, 
"We'll have a happy Sabbath day. 



METHOD. 

1st Stanza. — Read by paragraphs, leading the children to see, 
(1) the particular meaning of the words; (2) general meaning of 
the poem. 

(a) "Haste," "playthings," "to-morrow," "Noah's ark," 
" music cart." 

(b) Question why these are to be put away ? Meaning of 
Sabbath. Who appointed it, and why ? Read each stanza over 
after explanation. 

2d Stanza. — (1) German village to be shown the children, if 
possible ; if not, drawn on the board. "Waxen doll," "bright." 

(2) Why the playthings are given to some one else to keep ? 

3d Stanza.— (1) "Harp," "crown," "holy." 

(2) Who David was ? What he did with his harp ? Whom 
he used to play before ? What he was when a boy ? when a 
man ? What he wrote ? Why pictured with a crown ? Draw 
from the children what they know of Samuel. Why pictured on 
his knees ? How they may imitate him ? Where we learn of 
David and Samuel ? 

4th Stanza.— (1) "Hymn book," "earn." 

(2) Why mamma should read a Bible story out of a book ? 
Why not the child herself ? What this shows about her ? What 
sort of a Sunday such a child will spend, with mamma reading, 
and the pretty pictures to look at ? Try to impress the children 
with the idea of the peace and happiness of such a Sunday. Let 
them repeat any portion of God's Word which shows how He 
would have His day kept. Text : " Remember the Sabbath day 
to keep it holy." 

Students in training construct sketch on " The Little Ship on 
the Waves," or "Looking to Jesus in Difficulties and Dangers" 
(Hymns and Poetry), as sketch on " The Sabbath Day." 



896 MOKAL INSTRUCTION. — SECOND STKP. 

3. Sketch on Reverence. [The Athenians and Sjpartans.) 

1. Introduction. — Ask the children to name any nations of 
whom they have heard that lived a great while ago. If they 
mention the Jews, tell them that there were others of whom we 
have no Scriptural account ; among these were some people who 
lived in Greece. Point out the country on the map, and then its 
relative position with respect to Palestine. Explain that it was 
divided into several States. One of these States was called 
Athens. The people who lived in Athens were called Athenians. 
They were lively people, fond of games and shows of all sorts. 
Another of these States was called Sparta, and the people were 
called Spartans. They differed from the Athenians, being very 
plain in their way of living, and plain in their habits. They used 
to take their meals -altogether in the open air, that no one might 
have good things which others could not share. 

II. Story Told. — 1. One day the Athenians were going to 
have a play performed at their principal theatre. All the seats 
were soon taken. When the theatre was full, an old man came 
in, and looked round for a seat. He was old and infirm ; could 
not stand long. (Picture out his distress.) He looked first one 
way, and then another. There were several young men seated. 
("What they should have done ?) At length the old man saw a 
party of young Athenians beckoning to him. ("What we mean 
when we beckon ?) He tried to get to them, but had to climb 
over seats, and push through crowds ; and when at last he reached 
them, they sat down, and instead of giving him the seat he had 
expected, took up all the room. The poor old man was still left 
standing. How he must have felt ? "What can be said of the 
young people ? "Who they were ? (Athenians.) 

2. In this theatre were some seats fitted up for strangers. 
These were filled by young Spartans, who, when they saw the 
behavior of the Athenians, were much displeased, and beckoned to 
the old man to come to them. "When he was near, they all rose, 
and received him with the greatest respect. The Athenians, see- 
ing this, could not help bursting into a shout of applause. (Mean- 



MOKAL INSTRUCTION. SECOND STEP. 397 

ing of " applause.") The old man heard, and said, " The Athe- 
nians know what is right, hut the Spartans practise it." 

3. Contrast the conduct of the Athenians and Spartans. Who 
behaved rightly ? In what respect the Athenians were wrong ? 
in what right ? What feelings actuated the Spartans ? What 
Bible rule, though heathens, they fulfilled ? 

III. Application. — Get from the children various ways in 
which they can show honor and respect toward persons who are 
older than themselves : Giving up a place ; standing ; bowing ; 
speaking in a quiet tone. What we call this behavior ? Refer 
to God's approbation at seeing the young honor the aged, and His 
displeasure at seeing the aged treated with disrespect. Text : 
Lev. xix. 32. 

Students in training construct sketch on " Filial Piety," or 
" Self-devotion of the Servant," as sketch on " Reverence." 

Subject- Matter for Filial Piety. (Chambers' Moral Class Book.) 

Anecdote. — Etna is the principal volcano in Europe. Hun- 
dreds of years ago, an unusually violent eruption took place. 
Burning matter poured down the sides of the mountains in vari- 
ous directions, destroying whole villages. The air was thickened 
with falling cinders and ashes. The people fled for their lives, 
carrying with them their most valuable goods. Amongst these 
were two young men, named Anapias and Amphinomus, who 
bore a very different burden on their backs. They carried only 
their aged parents, who could by no other means have been pre- 
served. The conduct of these youths excited great admiration. 
It chanced that they took a way which the burning lava did not 
touch, which remained verdant, while all around was scorched and 
barren. The people, who, though very ignorant, were possessed 
of good feelings, believed that this tract had been preserved by 
myracle, and ever afterward called it the " field of the pious." 

Subject-Matter for Self-devotion. (Chambers' Moral Class Booh.) 

Anecdote. — In the winter of 1776, Count and Countess Podot- 
sky were travelling in the Carpathian mountains. The cold was 



398 MOKAL INSTRUCTION. SECOND STEP. 

very severe, and the wolves were more bold and savage than 
usual. These came down in hordes, and pursued the carriage. 
Of two servants, one had been sent on to the next town to pro- 
cure post horses. The other, seeing the wolves come nearer and 
nearer proposed to leave his horse to satisfy them, that so the 
travellers might gain time to reach the town. The count con- 
sented. The servant mounted behind the carriage, leaving the 
horse, which was seized and torn into a thousand pieces. Mean- 
while, the party proceeded with all possible speed toward the 
town, which was not very distant. But their horses were tired, 
and the wolves, with appetites sharpened by a scanty meal, had 
almost reached the carriage. 

In this extremity, the servant said, " Provide for my wife and 
children ; I will go and meet the wolves." He got down, and 
was devoured. While the wolves were feasting upon him, the 
count and countess reached the town in safety. 



4. Sketch on Faithfulness to Promises. ("King John of France?) 

I. Story Narrated. — The relative position of France and Eng- 
land, and the wars between King Edward III. of England, and 
King John of France, to be spoken of. Mention the battles 
fought, dwelling especially on that of Poictiers ; the success of the 
English ; defeat of the French, with the capture of their king ; 
his removal to England, and imprisonment. Endeavor to make 
the children realize the sad change in King John's condition : 
before, a king over a large country and a great people, possessed 
of riches and power, surrounded by every luxury ; now, deprived 
of all — his house a dungeon, his fare that of a prisoner. What 
would be his feelings under such circumstances? "What his grief? 
What his great desire ? Liberty. His proposal to King Edward, 
and the conditions upon which he was released. His retur* to 
France ; the effort to collect the money fixed upon as his ransom ; 
its failure. What this might have led him to do ? What he 
did ? His return to England, and to prison. Why ? Let the 
children give their opinion on his conduct, and learn the term by 



MOKAL INSTRUCTION. SECOND STEP. 899 

which it is expressed — faithfulness to promise. "What is there to 
admire in the conduct of King John ? 

II. Application. — Do you ever make promises ? How should 
they be regarded ? What should you do before making a promise ? 
In what way should you act when a promise has been made ? 
However much may be the inconvenience, whatever trouble it 
may give, still a promise must be kept. Why ? First, and 
mainly, because God requires this ; secondly, because such conduct 
will give satisfaction and peace of mind in the end, though it may 
produce temporary suffering, as it did m the case of King John ; 
thirdly, because of the effect such conduct will have on others. 

As the lesson proceeds, the principal points of it may be writ- 
ten on the board. 

Students in training construct sketch on "Candor," as "Faith- 
fulness to Promises." Subject-matter, " Story of George Wash- 
ington and the Cherry Tree." 

5. Sketch on Patriotism. ("Siege of Calais."} 

I. Story Narrated. — Begin by referring to the last lesson. 
What was said of the battles fought in the reign of Edward III. ? 
Point out the importance of Calais from its position : it was like 
a key to open the way into France and the Netherlands ; it was 
well fortified, surrounded by strong walls. Edward encompassed 
the city with his brave soldiers ; none of the people of Calais 
could therefore get out to obtain provisions. When they had 
consumed all their store, what must follow ? Still they fought — 
still they resisted Edward's demand that they should yield their 
city into his hands. At last, when nothing but starvation awaited 
them, they submitted. But Edward, instead of admiring their 
bravery and patriotism, was so angry at their long resistance, that 
he demanded the lives of six of the principal inhabitants. The 
suspense, and anxiety of the people ! How must their joy and 
gratitude have been mingled with deep sorrow, when six of their 
greatest men freely offered themselves to save the lives of the 
rest by the sacrifice of their own ! 

What virtue did these men show ? Of what qualities do they 



iOO MOKAL INSTRUCTION. — SECOND STEP. 

set us an example ? They held not their lives dear, so that they 
might save their poor countrymen. What -would you say of such 
men ? They -were generous, and loved their country. Imagine 
these brave, generous men, brought with halters round their necks 
before the angry king, who was so determined to punish them for 
the trouble that had been given him. how sad is anger ! Hap- 
pily, there is one of a different spirit there — Edward's wife, the 
gentle Queen Philippa ; she pleads for the noble sufferers. "What 
feeling led her to do this ? Compassion. This made her plead 
their cause, and with power. She succeeded. And how do you 
think she must have felt, when these brave warriors were set free ? 
She felt the luxury of doing good. 

II. Application. — "What evil dispositions are manifest in the 
circumstances brought forward in this lesson ? Anger and revenge 
in the king. What good dispositions ? Generosity and patriot- 
ism in the six citizens ; compassion in the queen. Which of these 
would you desire to imitate ? 

Students in training construct sketch on " The Galley Prisoner 
of Toulouse" (see Cowdery's "Moral Lessons," page 75), as 
sketch on " Siege of Calais." 

6. Sketch on Gratitude. (" The Lion and the Mouse") 

Point. — To develop the idea of gratitude. 

I. Introduction. — Bring before the children a picture of a lion 
and of a mouse, and lead them to draw a comparison between the 
two as to size, strength, and habits. The peculiar disposition of 
each : the one wild, fierce, strong ; the other gentle, timid, and 
weak. Speak also of their food, and the manner in which they 
obtain it. 

II. Fable Related. — Read or relate the fable of "The Lion 
and the Mouse," and help the children to realize the story. The 
forest ; the thick, shady oak, under which the lion, faint with 
heat, is resting ; the little insignificant mice running over the back 
of this king of beasts ; the anger of the lion at being thus dis- 
turbed ; the escape of all the mice but one ; the lion's intention ; 



MORAL INSTRUCTION. — SECOND STEP. 401 

the distress and supplication of the mouse ; effect of these upon 
the lion ; the feeling thus excited in the mouse toward the lion. 
When the children have gained the clear idea, give the name for 
this feeling — gratitude. 

Continue the subject, telling the children the danger in which 
the lion was afterward placed ; his voice of distress heard by the 
mouse ; the manner in which the mouse proves its gratitude ; its 
readiness to repay the kindness of the lion. In what way can the 
mouse help the lion ? In one way only, but this is sufficient ; he 
gnaws the net with his hard, sharp teeth, and sets the lion free. 

III. Application. — "What lesson may be learned from this 
fable ? That we should be grateful for kindness shown to us, 
especially if we have deserved otherwise. That none are so small 
or feeble but that they may be able, in some way or other, to 
return a kindness. That none are so great or so powerful, but 
that they may at some time need the service of their inferiors, and 
be helped by them. Of what virtue does this little mouse set us 
an example ? 

Students in training construct sketch on "Affectation," as 
"Gratitude," taking for subject-matter, "Jackdaw and Pigeons." 
(See "JSsop's Fables.") 

7. Sketch on Ingenuity and Perseverance. (" The Crow and the 

Pitcher:') 

I. Story Related. — A crow, suffering greatly from thirst, per- 
ceived, with much joy, a pitcher at a distance, and flew to it, but 
found very little water in it. The children should determine what 
then was its difficulty — its beak was too short to reach the water 
at the bottom. The crow, however, does not fly away in despair. 
"What can it do ? Here the children should endeavor to think of 
plans by which the crow might accomplish its object ; their prac- 
ticability may be canvassed. First, the crow endeavors to upset 
the pitcher, but this it cannot accomplish ; next, it patiently sets 
to work to fill the pitcher with pebbles. What is the effect of its 
doing this ? The water rises to the top. Why ? The pebbles 
are heavier than the water ; they sink to the bottom, and cause 



402 MORAL INSTRUCTION. — SKCOND STEP. 

the water to rise to the top. The crow is rewarded for its labor 
by getting a draught of water, of which it stands so much in 
need. 

II. Application. — The children should determine the merit of 
the crow. What was its conduct ? and then, how they can imi- 
tate it ? "When they have some work to accomplish which appears 
to them difficult, they must not say they cannot do it, but consider 
what means they can adopt. If the first plan fails, as that of the 
crow did, try another ; find some new and better plan ; persevere 
till they succeed. Consider, first, what to do, and spare no pains 
to succeed in what they feel is right to be done. Ingenuity and 
perseverance will have their reward. This to be repeated, and 
the children to sing, " 'Tis a lesson Ave should heed." 

Students in training construct sketch on '' Discontent," subject- 
matter, "The Frogs who Wanted a King," as sketch on "Inge- 
nuity and Perseverance." (See "iEsop's Fables.") 

8. Sketch on Self-Reliance. (" The Lark and her Young Ones.") 

I. Introduction. — Commence by asking the children what kind 
of bird the lark is, and showing them a picture of it. Its habits : 
building its nest on the ground in a corn field, and soaring over it; 
ascending very high ; singing most joyously. 

II. Fable Narrated. — A lark had a nest of }"Oung birds in a 
wheat field. When the wheat became ripe, they were still unable 
to fly. What was likely to be the consequence ? The men 
would come with their reapers, and the poor little birds would be 
trampled on by them, or they might even be cut in pieces by 
the scythes. How would the mother bird feel, when she ex- 
pected that the farmer would commence reaping ? She told her 
little ones to listen attentively to all he said, and to tell her every 
word. Whilst she was away procuring them food, the owner of 
the field came to look at the grain, and seeing it so ripe, told 
his son to go and call his friends and neighbors to come and cut 
it on the morrow. The young birds were greatly alarmed, but 
the old one thought there was no cause for fear. Why ? If the 
farmer depended upon others to do his work, it would not, she 



MORAL INSTRUCTION. SECOND STEP. 403 

thought, be done. She gave again the same command to her 
young ones ; and the next day they reported that they heard the 
farmer tell his son to invite his cousins to come and cut the wheat. 
What would the wise old bird say to this ? No cause for fear. 
Why ? The next morning the birds heard the farmer say to his 
son, "Since neither our friends, neighbors, nor cousins will do 
our work for us, go, get a reaper, that we may do it ourselves." 
When the old lark heard this, she said, " We must be gone with- 
out delay ; for when a man undertakes to do his own business, 
then it will surely be done." So she removed her little ones, and 
the field was reaped. 

III. Application. — Draw from the children the lesson which 
the fable enforces — that if we wish our work performed, we must 
not depend upon others to do it, but set about it ourselves. Ques- 
tion them as to what disposition it is which leads us to give up 
our proper work to others. 

Students in training construct sketch on "Mockery," subject- 
matter, "The Shepherd Boy and Wolf," as sketch on "Self- 
Keliance." (See "^Esop's Fables.") 



A LIST OF MORAL QUALITIES, AND SUBJECTS FOR THEIR ILLUS- 
TRATION.* 

Obedience .... The Rechabites. Jer. xxxv. 

Disobedience . . . Absalom. 2 Samuel xv. 

Kindness .... David and Mephibosheth. 

Respect Solomon and his Mother. 1 Kings ii. 

* In the various series of books published by the Educational Societies, many 
excellent and appropriate stories of useful tendency will be found ; and also in 
the " Simple Lessons " and the " Moral Class Book," published by the Messrs. 
Chambers, of Edinburgh. But teachers should be prepared to supply the appeal 
to religious motive, and constant reference to the revealed will of God as the rule 
of action, in which most of these are defective. "A Kiss for a Blow," is a little 
work written in an excellent spirit, from which teachers may select several pieces. 
In Mrs. Tuckfield's " Book of Proverbs and Maxims," and also in her " Evening 
Readings," there are many interesting anecdotes, written in a Christian spirit. 
Some stories may likewise be selected from " Evenings at Home ; " but the same 
caution is necessary here, as in the little work of Chambers. " Aids to Cate- 



40J: 



MORAL INSTRUCTION. — THIRD STEP. 



Generosity . 
Covetousness 
Cruelty . 
Envy . . 
Gratitude . 
Diligence 
Perseverance 

Faith . . 
Honesty . 



King Alfred and the Beggar. 

Achan. Joshua vii. Gehazi. 2 Kings v. 

Murder of the Innocents. 

Joseph and his Brethren. Gen. xxxvii. 

Fable of the Lion and the Mouse. 

Song of the Busy Bee. 

The Fable of the Crow and the Pitcher. 

Story of King Robert Bruce and the Spider. 

The Little Girl and the Beads. Cecil. 

The "Woodman and the Axe. 



FABLES. 



The Vain Jackdaw. 
The Dove and the Ant. 
The Husbandman and his Sons. 
The Doe: and the Shadow. 



The Tortoise and the Hare. 
The Wolf and the Kid. 
The Ant and the Grasshopper. 
The Dog in the Manger. 



THIRD STEP. 



MORA I. CHARACTER. 

1. Sketch on the Errand Boy. 

Heads. — I. Duties. II. Qualifications. III. Making appli- 
cation. 

I. — Require the children to define the work of an errand boy. 

1. Taking letters, messages, and parcels. 

2. Lighting fires, sweeping, dusting, cleaning windows, taking 
down shutters, &c. 

3. Tending the store. (W. B.) 

II. — Draw from the children, that whoever enters a situation 

chetical Teaching" contains a number of stories founded on right principles, 
and which may be used without fear, as may also Cowdery's " Moral Lessons." 

For appropriate hymns and pieces of poetry, teachers are referred to the 
third edition of " Hymns and Poetry," published by the Home and Colonial 
Scbool Society. 

There is a selection of fables published by the Tract Society, which is cheap 
and good. 



MOKAL INSTRUCTION. — THIED STEP. 405 

must possess qualities which will fit him for it. Tell them these 
qualities which fit us for our situations, are called qualifications. 
liefer to what is written on the board. "What a boy must have 
before he can find out streets, or know how to leave a parcel at 
the place to which it is directed, or how to give a receipt. A 
knowledge of reading and writing. (W. B.) Speak of the ad- 
vantage of going to school. How much they owe their parents 
and teachers. How a boy should listen to a message he has to 
deliver. He must be attentive. (W. B.) Show, by example 
(anecdote), how necessary it is to give the exact message, to pre- 
vent mistakes. He must be exact. (W. B.) 

What plans might be adopted to help him to remember what 
he has to say ? After listening attentively, to repeat it over to 
himself. Refer to a boy doing something else first, when told to 
be quick. The probable consequence. He must be punctual. 
(W. B.) 

Contrast the appearance and behavior of two boys, one dirty 
and idle, the other tidy and quick. Which boy would people 
wish to employ ? What objections would they make to the dirty 
and idle boy ? He would be likely to soil what he had to carry, 
and to fail to bring it in time. The errand boy must be clean and 
industrious. (W. B.) Refer to the money or goods he may have 
intrusted to his care. He must be honest. (W. B.) Children 
to decide on the way he should speak to his employer, or to 
his employer's customers. He must be obliging and respectful. 
(W. B.) 

III. — Remind the children that some of them may be errand 
boys, or girls. Ask what situations they would like to fill ? Let 
them decide whether any of the qualifications written on the 
board can be dispensed with in the situations they select. Lead 
them to see that in all positions these qualities are needful. Ask 
what will help them to acquire these qualifications ? Try to in- 
spire them with a wish to possess these, not only to please em- 
ployers, but that God may say to them, " Well done, good and 
faithful servant." S. R. : " Servants, be obedient to your mas- 
ters ; not with eye service." 



406 MORAL INSTRUCTION. THIRD STEP. 

Students in training construct sketch on " The Factory Girl," 
or " The Kitchen Girl," as sketch on " The Errand Boy." 

2. Sketch on " The Fisherman." 

I. Introduction. — Ascertain who of the children have seen 
men and boys fishing. Question, so as to bring out the particular 
mode adopted ; i. e., How many fish caught at a time ? 

II. — Tell them there are some men who get their living by 
fishing. They are called fishermen, and they catch fish in a differ- 
ent place, and in a different way, from those last spoken of. 
Where, and how ? Show a picture of the net. Children say 
how used. Different proportion caught by net and line. Lead 
children to contrast and calculate this. 

1. The angler fishes for amusement. 
The fisherman fishes for bread. 

2. The angler fishes with a line. 

The fisherman fishes with a net. , 

3. The angler fishes in the river. 
The fisherman fishes in the sea. 

4. The angler stands on shore. 

The fisherman goes out in a boat. 

III. — Question as to the different kinds of fish caught. Her- 
ring, mackerel, cod, soles, salmon, &c. (W. B.) Tell at what 
parts of the coasts the most common fish are found. Herring and 
mackerel come in shoals at certain times of the year. "Who 
sends them, and why? The salmon is caught in some of our 
rivers, and is plentiful off the coast of Scotland, and off the north 
coast of Ireland. 

IV. — Refer them to the waves of the sea. Height to which 
these swell. Picture out the fisherman in his little boat, in the 
midst of the waves. What they would do in such a situation ? 
The fisherman must be a good sailor. (W. B.) What often 
happens at sea ? Dreadful storms. Kind of man he must be to 
face such— bold. (W. B.) 

Picture again the uncomfortable little boat in which he has to 



MORAL INSTRUCTION. THIRD STEP. 407 

sit. How often lie gets drenched with rain. The effect this 
would have on themselves. The fisherman does not mind it at 
all ; he shakes his wet jacket, and works on. People who can 
bear such hardships, we call hardy. (W. B.) 

Tell them that the fisherman carefully examines the weather 
before he ventures forth. Of what use this is. He must under- 
stand the signs of the weather. (W. B.) And if he is a good 
man, he will ask God to give him His blessing and protection in 
his daily work. 

V. Summary. — Children, from memory, contrast the fisher- 
man with the angler. Mention different kinds of fish caught, and 
where found, and enumerate the qualifications of the fisherman. 

Students in training construct sketch on " The Soldier," as 
sketch on " The Fisherman." 

3. Sketch on " Expedition of Sir John Franklin." 

I. Introduction. — Let the children name any countries they 
know. How different countries have been found out ; as America, 
Australia. Bring a map of the world, and let the children find 
in what ways they would get to Asia by ship from New York. 
Either round Cape Horn, or round Cape of Good Hope. 

Let them try to find another way of going by ship. If they 
fail, point out to them the northwest passage. Compare this route 
with the others as to length, to find the advantage of going by it. 
Refer to the climate, to show the disadvantage. 

Picture out the Polar Sea. Immense masses of ice ; a white bear, 
perhaps, on a peak of one of them ; another mass floating toward 
the ship. The intense cold. So many inconveniences and dan- 
gers were there, that people did not know whether they could go 
that way or not. Who would be willing to try ? "What kind of 
men they must be ? 

II. Story Told. — A sailor, called Sir John Franklin, was asked 
to go. He went, taking two ships. "Why two ? He was not 
expected to return in a year. Perhaps there would be much ice 
in the winter, and he would have to wait till the next summer's 
sun melted some of it. His wife hoped to see him back in two 



408 MORAL INSTRUCTION. THIRD STEP. 

years ; at most, in three. Children to say how the ship must be 
provided for so long a journey. The ship sailed. One year 
passed, another, and another ; still the people were not afraid. 
"Why not ? Then another year passed away, and again another. 
"What people would think now ? How would Lady Franklin 
feel ? What Sir John Franklin and his crew would be likely to 
want now ? They were kept out much longer than they ever 
expected. What could be done for them ? The queen of England 
sent other ships, with plenty of food and clothes, to look every- 
where for them, but in vain. The people, too, of other countries, 
sent ships to try and find them, but they could not. At last all 
parties said they must give up the search. It was useless to send 
more ships and men, to perish, too, in the icy sea. Could Lady 
Franklin give up ? Could she rest, and not know whether her 
husband was dead or alive ? She sent out ship after ship, till she 
spent so much money that she was only able to send one more. 
This went, and returned to tell her that she would never see her 
husband again. He was dead. He was taken ill in the ship, and 
died. 

Would children like to know what became of the ships, and 
the rest of the men ? The ice crushed the ships ; so the men got out, 
and tried to walk over the ice, in hopes of finding some other ship. 
Of all those that were sent, they met none. It was terribly cold, 
and they had no shelter, no food, save what they could carry ; so 
they perished one by one. Let us hope those poor men loved 
God, and are now with Him, safe and happy forever. 

The children should be led to sympathize with the courage of 
Sir John Franklin and his crew. Who, with the affectionate per- 
severance of his wife ? 

Students in training construct sketch on " Dr. Kane's Arctic 
Expedition," as sketch on " Expedition of Sir John Franklin." 

4. Sketch on "Henry II and his Children. 1 ' 

Point. — To show the consequence of filial ingratitude and dis- 
obedience. 

I. — Character of Henry II. as a father. 



MORAL INSTRUCTION. — THIRD STEP. 409 

II. — Conduct of Henry's sons, and their punishment. 
III. — Application. 

I. — Children to name any eminent kings of England.* Select 
Henry II. as the subject of the lesson. Refer to the period of his 
reign ; his descent. Give the names of his queen and children. 
Describe Henry's conduct as a father during the childhood of his 
sons. His love for them. How parents show their love ? How 
Henry showed his love? 1. By his indulgence; the readiness 
with which he entered into their sports. 2. By the pains he took 
with their education, getting them the best teachers, that they 
might be ignorant of nothing befitting their station to know. 
3. By the provision he made for them, appointing Henry to suc- 
ceed himself; giving Brittany to Geoffrey, and Guienne and 
Aquitaine to Richard ; making John, Lord of Ireland. Chief 
points put on the board, at the dictation of the children. Chil- 
dren to say what so kind a father might expect his children to be. 
To decide, from the fact to be given, whether they were dutiful, 
affectionate, grateful. 

II. — 1. Consider Prince Henry ; his ardent wish to reign be- 
fore his father's death ; his disputes with his brother Richard ; the 
part the king took in the affray ; its results ; Prince Henry's ill- 
ness and death (the ring) ; effects of this on the king. 

2. Prince Geoffrey. Narrate briefly his career and fearful 
end. 

3. Note briefly the dissensions between Richard and John. 
The distress these caused the king. Henry's death; Richard's 
visit to the tomb of his father ; his bitter repentance. Picture out 
the scene with reference to Mrs. Hemans's poem on the subject. 
His career as king of England. 

4. John, king of England ; his meanness ; cruelty ; tyranny ; 
its results ; his death. "Write on the board, at children's dictation, 
how each son of Henry II. died. 

III. Application. — Children to say to what the mournful fate of 
Henry's sons may be traced. "What caused the remorse they felt? 
Let children find examples of disobedient children from the Bible, 

* For account of this, see " Little Arthur's England." 
18 



410 MORAL INSTRUCTION. — THIRD STEP. 

and refer to texts which speak of this sin, and its punishments. 
In what respects they may be guilty of the same faults? "What 
children must expect who persevere in acting thus ? In disobey- 
ing their earthly parent, they sin against God, and God signally 
punishes such rebellion even in this world. Repeat together the 
Fifth Commandment. 

Students in training construct sketch on anecdote, " Messrs. 
Adams and Quincy" (see Cowdery's "Moral Lessons," page 197), 
as sketch on " Hanry II." 



5. Sketch on " The Gunpoioder Harvest." 

1. Story Told. — A tribe of Indians dwelt near the Missouri 
River, in North America. These had but little intercourse with 
Europeans. 

Ideas worked out. Point out the locality on the map. De- 
scribe the country — covered with forests. The people ; their com- 
plexion, dress, mode of life — hunters. Explain European and 
intercourse. 

2. A merchant went into their country ; sold them muskets 
and gunpowder, taking fur as an exchange. "Whether the man 
would be likely to give his muskets away ? "What he would ex- 
pect ? What the Indians would be able to give ? Why they 
would particularly value firearms? Explain merchant, musket, 
gunpoioder, and exchange. 

3. After a time, a Frenchman came to the same country to 
sell gunpowder. The Indians had plenty — would not buy. What 
the Frenchman wanted ? How the fact of the Indians having 
gunpowder affected him ? 

4. He told them gunpowder was a seed, &c. What seeds 
do ? Motive of the lie ? The sin of the lie ? The effect of the 
lie ? Try to make the children sympathize with the simplicity of 
the poor Indians. 

5. So the Indians bought the gunpowder ; sowed it ; placed 
a guard to protect the field from wild beasts ; waited for the har- 
vest. What they expected ? Why they placed a guard ? When 



MORAL INSTRUCTION. — THIRD STEP. 411 

they would find out the cheat ? Lead the children to sympathize 
with their anxiety, while waiting for the gunpowder to sprout. 

6. Next year the Frenchman, who did not choose to go again 
himself, sent his partner to the Missouri, with many things to ex- 
change for furs. Why he did not go ? Make the children under- 
stand he was afraid to meet the poor men he had wronged. Show 
that fear is a consecmence of guilt. Explain partner. 

7. Somehow the Indians found out that these goods belonged 
to the man who had cheated them. Straightway they gave him 
a hut, in which all his goods were set out. When this was done, 
they helped themselves, &c. 

He demanded justice from the chief, and was promised the 
skins of all the beasts that should be shot with the produce of the 
gunpowder harvest. With what feelings the Frenchman dis- 
played his goods ? With what feelings he saw them disappear. 
Refer again to the manner in which the Indians had been deprived 
of their property. Refer to Exodus xii., and show that after the 
Egyptians had made the Israelites work without wages, God 
bade his people demand return. 

Children to say whether, if a schoolfellow took something from 
them, it would be right to snatch something of his ? What they 
can do? Appeal to the teacher. What a man who is robbed in 
the street can do ? Appeal to. the magistrate. Show the differ- 
ences in the position of the Indians. There was no one to whom 
they could go for redress of wrong ; they had a right to redress 
it themselves. Children to say what is to be condemned in the 
conduct of the Frenchman. What those who injure others must 
expect. " He that diggeth a pit, shall fall therein." Also Luke 
vi. 38. 

Students construct sketch on the "The Moravian Farmer" 
(Chambers's " Moral Class Book"), as sketch on " The Gunpowder 
Harvest." 

6. Sketch on " The Shepherd." 

I. — Duties, and mode of life. 
IT.— The Shepherd of the lost. 
III. — Character of a good shepherd. 
/ 



412 MORAL INSTRUCTION. — THIRD STEP. 

I. — Children say if they have ever seen a flock of sheep. 
Where ? What the sheep were doing ? Who was with them, 
and for what purpose ? The shepherd watches the sheep, to see 
that they do not lose themselves, and that no one steals them. 
He leads them to water, and to different meadows where they 
can find fresh grass. What he has to do every evening ? Put 
them into a fold. Call on some of the children to describe this, 
and on others to tell its use. What he does every summer, when 
it is very hot, and the sheep can hardly run about under their 
heavy woollen coats ? He takes them, one at a time, to a pond, 
and washes their fleeces, which are then clipped off. Why this 
is done ? With what instrument ? Whether the shepherd can 
do it all by himself ? How the sheep behave? How they feel 
after it is cut off? What they will do in winter, having their 
wool cut off in the summer ? What happens before winter ? 
Who causes this to happen ? What the shepherd always has to 
help him, and how ? What we can say of his dog ? 

II. — Children name any shepherds mentioned in the Bible. 
Tell them that in countries the Bible speaks of, it is very hot, and 
there is little rain. What difference this makes to the sheep ? 
So the shepherd has to look carefully for water and green grass. 
Refer to the fierce wild beasts that infest these countries. When 
they are most likely to come out of their dens ? How to secure 
the flock ? Luke ii. 

III. — Let children picture a lion, first in ambush, then spring- 
ing on one of the flock. What the bad shepherd would do ? 
What the good? "The good shepherd giveth his life for the 
sheep." Again, picture out the shepherd during a hot summer's day, 
leading his flock to some shady place, and playing a tune to them, 
as David did. Tell them that David made songs referring to this 
subject, and repeat some part of Psalm xxiii. Children say what 
kind of a man a good shepherd must be : patient, tender, strong, 
courageous. Who is. called our Shepherd? What he calls little 
children who love him ? (his lambs.) Speak of his patience and 
tenderness ; of the safety of his flock. Would not each child like 
to be one of Christ's lambs ? 



MORAL INSTRUCTION. — FOURTH STEP. 413 

FOURTH STEP. • 

MORAL PRINCIPLES. — INTRODUCTORY TO MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

1. Sketch on the Analogy of Spring and Childhood. 

I. — By questions, endeavor to draw from the children a de- 
scription of spring. In what part of the year the spring comes ? 
"What they notice, when taking a walk in the country in spring ? 
Flowers peeping above the ground. (Children give the names of 
some early flowers.) Buds sprouting on the trees ; grass looking 
fresh and green. (W. B.) Everything is growing. Question 
as to the things done in spring. Laborers dig the ground ; put 
seed into it ; the gardener lays out his beds and plants ; birds 
build their nests ; bees collect honey from the early flowers ; every 
creature is cheerful, and busy at its work. ("W. B.) All are pre- 
paring for a future time. 

Refer to the weather in spring. How the air feels ? "Warm, 
soft, and fresh. How the sky looks ? Bright, though with some 
clouds scattered here and there. Children decide on the general 
state of the weather. To do this, let them compare it with the 
dry harvest time, the rains of later autumn, and the frost of win- 
ter. In spring, the weather is neither hot nor cold, neither wet 
nor dry ; showers are common, but not long. (W. B.) Show- 
ers are soon followed by sunshine. 

II. — Children read what is written on the board. In spring, 
everything is growing ; all things are preparing for a future time ; 
showers are soon followed by sunshine. 

Tell them that wise men have compared spring-time to child- 
hood, and help them to trace the analogy as to each point. 

1. They are growing. Their bodies grow. They are taller 
and stronger than they were. (Refer to the babies at home.) 
Their minds grow ; they know more than they did. Refer to the 
time when they first saw them. How little they knew then. 
"What now ? 

2. They are preparing for a future period. As the laborer 
sows the grain in spring, so the seed of instruction is sown in 
youth. Children to say what is compared to the soil? What to 



414 



MORAL INSTRUCTION. — FOURTH STEP. 



the seed ? "What happens, if the seed is bad ? "What will come 
up,^f no seed is sown ? Dwell on this point until the analogy- 
is clearly traced. 

3. Showers are compared to tears, sunshine to smiles. Refer 
to things that have happened to trouble them during the week. 
Let them notice how soon these things have passed over, leaving 
them as happy as before. The sun has shone out. Close the les- 
son with a few serious words, referring to the duty of being dili- 
gent and attentive in youth. Warn them, that where there are 
no blossoms in spring, there will be no fruit in autumn. 

Students in training construct sketch on " The Analogy of 
the Course of a River and the Course of Human Life," as sketch 
on " Analogy of Spring and Childhood." 

A course of lessons on Symbols, Emblems, &c, might advan- 
tageously be given here. 



LIST. 



Omniscience, represented by an Eye. 

Adoration, u a Censer containing Incense. 



Welcome, 


u 


a Hand stretched out. 


Friendsh ip, 


u 


Clasped Hands. 


Royal Power, 


u 


a Rod, or Sceptre. 


Military Power, 


u 


anciently, a Horn ; recently, a Sword. 


Immortality, \ 






Life, I 


11 


a Serpent. 


Health, ) 






Eternity, 


u 


a Circle ; often a Serpent, with its 
Tail in its Mouth. 


Justice, 


tt 


a Balance. 


Hope, 


11 


an Anchor. *; 


Faith, -\ 






Sorroiv, > 


a 


a Cross. 


Humiliation, ) 






Victory, 


u 


a Wreath. 


The Trinity, 


a 


an Equilateral Triangle enclosed in a 



Circle of Rays. 



MOKAL INSTRUCTION. FOUKTH STEP. 415 

The two succeeding examples are not sketches, but bona fide 
reports of lessons given by two of the principal teachers in the 
Home and Colonial Model Schools. 

1. Report of Lesson on " The Nightingale and Gloivivorm." 

1. Point. — To work out the moral lesson ; i. e., God gives to 
different persons different talents for their general good. 

II. Heads. — 1. Introduction. 2. Stanzas read, questioned on, 
and explained. 3. Moral lesson and application. 

III. Plan of the Lesson. — 1. Lesson introduced, by drawing 
from the children such points in natural history as will bear on the 
subject, (a) Account of the nightingale, and its habits, (b) Of 
the glowworm, and its habits. 

2. Stanzas read in separate paragraphs. («) Questions put 
on each, to bring out the general meaning. Examples : "What 
had the bird been doing ? "Why was he hungry in the evening ? 
What effect was the glowworm's argument likely to have on the 
nightingale? "Whose task was it to beautify ? Whose to cheer? 
(b) Questions put on the meaning of the more difficult words, 
which the children were- allowed to explain, either by definition 
or by synonym. Words explained : Keen, demands, eagerly, 
haivthorn, crop, admire, power, (c) Questions put, to call out a 
sense of the exact appropriateness of certain words, and their 
superiority over their synonyms. Children led to see that no 
synonym would have the force of spied, right (as an adverb), 
harangued, minstrelsy, toarbled. 

3. The children, being told that this is a fable, and not a mere 
narrative, concluded that it contained a moral lesson. To help 
them to find it, teacher bade them name the subjects of the story, 
and put the names on the board. Children decided that these 
meant different people. 

What the nightingale possessed, and what the glowworm pos- 
sessed, discovered, and put upon the board. Children decided that 
these meant different gifts or talents. 

By comparison of the nightingale's full power of song, with 
the glowworm's little twinkling light, children decided that talents 



410 MORAL INSTRUCTION. FOURTH STEP. 

differed in character and in importance. Gave, as examples of 
talents or gifts, riches, mental ability, bodily strength. Eelative 
value of these gifts touched upon. 

4. Teacher next put on the board the heads of the glow- 
worm's argument, as discovered by the children, thus : 

(a) The glowworm states that he admires the nightingale's 

song. 

(b) He argues that the nightingale ought in like manner to 

admire his lamp. 

(c) He states that God gave to each his separate gift. 
(cZ) That these gifts were bestowed for the general good. 

The propositions, a, b, c, having been clearly made out before 
d was worked out, by special reference to the pleasures and bene- 
fits we derive from the labors of the highly gifted. (Eminent 
men, and their works, named, including the poet Cowper himself.) 
IV". Application. — Made chiefly by reference to the different 
points in which they succeed or fail. How those who make much 
progress may be tempted to feel toward those who are slow ? 
How those who are slow might be tempted to feel toward those 
who are more talented ? "What considerations would tend to pre- 
vent wrong feelings on the side of the more advanced ? of the less 
advanced ? Reference to " the Parable of the Talents." 

In giving this lesson, the teacher exercised the conceptive 
faculty in the introductory descriptions, and the reasoning faculties 
in drawing out the analogy. 

2. Report of Lesson on " Strife." 

I. — Definition of the term. Draw from the children its vari 
ous meanings ; as, contention, disagreement, quarrelling. Show 
the origin of the word, in connection with strive. Show the dif- 
ference implied — one may strive ; for strife, there must be two. 
Show the senses, good and bad, in which the term may be used. 
Write on the board, from dictation of the children, " Strife is the 
effort to obtain victory. It requires two for strife. The word 
implies disagreement, opposition, and contention." 



MOKAL INSTRUCTION. FOUKTII STEP. 417 

II. First Example. — 1. Refer to Exodus ii. 13. Touch on 
what we know. The similarity of race ; faitli ; condition ; sor- 
row. Touch on what we do not know. "Who was strong, and 
who was weak ? who was right, and who was wrong ? 

2. Cause of Strife. — Refer to Proverbs xvi. 28. Define fro- 
ward, as contrary. A froward person is one bent on having his 
own way, right or wrong ; inclined to contradiction, and always 
ready for a quarrel. Compare this with Exodus ii. 13, to show 
that the violent man was the one to blame. General conclusion 
drawn. 

3. Consequence. — The flight of Moses, who had come down at 
that time seeking to free them from their bonds. So far as it de- 
pended on the combatants, the result was an addition of forty 
years to the length of Israel's captivity. 

Second Example. — 1. Strife of Jacob and Laban. Account 
given by the children. Progress of Jacob from Padan-aram 
shown on the map. 

2. The Cause. — Covetousness of Laban. 

3. The Consequence. — As Laban was stronger than Jacob, 
Jacob, his wives and children, were in danger of being brought 
back, never permitted to go to the land of Canaan, or meet Isaac ; 
deprived of their property ; forced to become servants. To pre- 
vent such injustice, God himself interfered. 

Third Example. — 1. Strife between the servants of Abraham 
and the servants of Lot. Example drawn from the children. 

2. Cause. — Rivalry. Compare this with the strife amongst 
the disciples, when they strove who should be greatest. 

3. Consequence. — The separation of chief friends. 

Fourth Example. — 1. Strife between Jephthah and the 
Ephraimites. Account given as before. 

2. Cause. — Pride and jealousy. 

3. Consequences. — (Threatened) ungrateful murder, dreadful 
massacre ; (actual) civil war and slaughter. 

III. Causes of Strife. — 1. The causes already discovered 
summed up, and written on the board. 

18* 



418 MOKAL INSTRUCTION. — FOUKTH STEP. 

2. Other causes found. "Whether mentioned in Scripture, or 
drawn from observation ? 

LIST. 

Frowardness. Jealousy. 

Covetousness. Envy. 

Rivalry. Tale-bearing. 

Pride. Foolish J'esting. 

Drunkenness, &c. 

IV. Consequences. — Drawn from the children. 

LIST. 

Loss of Time. 

" Property. 

" Life. 

" Peace. 

" Power of Doing Good. 
From St. James, " Confusion, and every evil work." 

V. Ajyrfication. — How to avoid strife ? Consider who is the 
author of strife. Consider the conduct of those who refuse to be 
disturbed by it. The conduct of Abraham, and its effect. The 
conduct of Gideon. Compare this with that of Jephthah. Refer 
to texts : " A soft answer turneth away wrath," and " Blessed are 
the peacemakers." 



INVENTIVE DRAWING.* 



INTRODUCTION. 

Principles of this Course Developed. 

Pestalozzi, the great and successful advocate of more natural 
methods of teaching, considered that form, number, and sound 
supplied materials for the development of the principal faculties 
of the mind. Moreover, he considered the communication of 
knowledge of little importance, unless tending to the development 
of the mind on the basis of given facts. 

Drawing, the subject of this treatise, belongs to form, and pre- 
sents means for the most elementary instruction. In its first stage 
it may even be preparatory to writing, as letters are mere compo- 
sitions of straight and curved lines, for the performance of which 
the hand should have previously attained a certain degree of firm- 
ness and dexterity. 

Let us now consider what are the faculties that are developed 
by drawing. In consequence of the way in which this art is usu- 
ally taught, many think that it only exercises the faculty of imita- 
tion. "We admit that imitation cultivates the hand and the eye, 
but doubt whether it cultivates or draws out talent and ingenuity. 
For even in copying the products of masters, we ought to be able 
to appreciate their merits, not merely in the aggregate, but also in 
detail. 

Schelling, the great German philosopher, expresses himself 
thus : " In a time when people believe it possible to proceed with 

* By Hermann Krusi, the inventor of this system. 



420 INVENTIVE DRAWING. 

one leap from the first to the last step of the ladder of knowledge, 
the sentence may appear hard, that art, like everything possessed 
with vitality, must go back to the first elements. We must see 
how every original product of art rises from the depth of imagina- 
tion, branching out into an infinite variety of forms, and combin- 
ing at last into a graceful whole. This power of invention cannot 
be communicated, for it is the pure gift of Nature, reflecting her- 
self in the mind. A true artist can only follow the law which 
God and Nature have implanted in his mind. There is but little 
help from outside ; every genius ripens by its own strength." 

Thus Schelling, in this noble passage, recognizes the power of 
Invention as the principal mover and creator of art. 

In the present elementary treatise, we intend to trace the pro- 
gressive steps on which this important power may be cultivated, 
and to associate it with its natural ally, Taste ; which latter is not 
such an arbitrary ruler as is generally believed, but subject to 
fixed laws. 

But the object of this method, far from tending only to amuse- 
ment, is an eminently jnactical one. "Whilst acknowledging that 
the principle of invention is vastly encouraged in this country in 
all the improvements which administer to gain and comfort, we 
find occasionally a woeful absence of taste, and are obliged to bor- 
row the finest patterns for ornament from France and Germany, 
in both of which countries drawing is introduced as a popular 
branch of instruction. 

If the schools of this country will admit drawing as the most 
elementary, the most distinct and pleasing branch of instruction, 
they will become more practical than they have hitherto been, 
and apply more to the wants of the present generation. 

The first exercises belonging to this course are of such an ele- 
mentary character, that they may precede the knowledge of let- 
ters and of writing. Even geometrical forms may be introduced 
at this step, because the increase in the number of lines in every 
succeeding exercise, leads necessarily to all the forms on which the 
science of Geometry is built. Since, however, the elements of 
form have already been described under a separate head, the 
teacher is referred to it whenever she finds definitions necessary. 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. FIKST STEP. 421 

In case the children have already an idea of the geometrical forms 
which arise from the combination of several lines, the teacher 
must not neglect the opportunity of putting appropriate questions, 
by way of repetition. There are, no doubt, many combinations of 
lines which cannot be designated by any name, and which, as a 
product of the children's invention, must be received as readily as 
those which have been adopted as symbols of form. In order to 
show the plan of teaching, the first exercise will be introduced as 
a model lesson. It is supposed that the children are already ac- 
quainted with the ideas of vertical, horizontal, slanting, parallel, 
&c. Although it was stated that this knowledge was not abso- 
lutely necessary to begin this course, it cannot be denied that, at 
the age at which children are required to possess the power of 
drawing lines with tolerable accuracy, an acquaintance with the 
most prominent geometrical forms may be expected, or, at any 
rate, will be very desirable. 



FIEST STEP. 

EXERCISES WITH STRAIGHT LINES. 

Exercise 1. — Combinations with Two Lines. 

The teacher provides herself with two thin sticks, and asks 
the children what they see ? Two sticks. Placing them ver- 
tically against the wall, she asks, How are the sticks placed ? 
They stand. If you wished to represent these sticks by means of 
lines, what kind of lines would you use ? Straight lines. Very 
well ; and what direction would you give the straight lines ? 
They must be vertical. 

The teacher then may place the sticks horizontally on the 
floor, and ask, How are they now situated ? They lie on the 
floor. "What lines would you use in order to represent them 
thus ? Horizontal lines. 

The teacher then places the sticks so that they are parallel to 
each other, and incline to the right, and asks the children what 
they can say about their position, and what lines they would use 



422 INVENTIVE DRAWING. FIRST STEP. 

to represent them. She inclines them to the left, and asks similar 
questions. After this she makes them incline toward each other, 
and draws from the children, that they approach each other at one 
end, and are further apart at the other. By making the sticks 
meet, an angle is produced, which the children name, and tell by 
what kind of lines they would represent it. If the end of one 
stick is placed against the side of the other, two angles are pro- 
duced, which can be either right angles, or one angle acute and 
the other obtuse. By making the sticks cross, four angles are 
produced, which must be either all right, or two angles acute and 
two obtuse. This exhausts the combinations which can be made 
with two sticks or two lines. (See Plate I.) 

The children, having thus obtained a clear insight into the 
forms they will have to delineate, are told to draw upon their 
slates the combinations which the teacher forms with the sticks. 
In doing this, they should be instructed not to change the 
position of their slates. "When each has drawn one or more 
figures, the teacher, selecting a number of those exhibiting the 
most taste and ingenuity, puts them on the blackboard. She 
then calls their attention to them, making such suggestions or 
remarks as may occur to her. The figures should now all be 
erased, both from the board and from the slates, and the children 
called upon to reproduce them from memory as far as possible, 
thus cultivating the conceptive faculty. 

Plate I. represents all the combinations with two lines. 

Plate I. 





INVENTIVE DRAWING. FIKST STEP. 423 




Exercise 2. — Combinations with Three Lines, 

Although the first exercise was conducted entirely under the 
direction of the teacher, this was only done for the sake of mak- 
ing the children aware of the variety of positions which two sticks 
or two lines can assume. Now the children will be able to make 
these combinations for themselves. It is, however, advisable, not 
to dispense with the sticks as yet, but, placing three of them in the 
hands of a child, request him to arrange them on the floor, or 
against the wall, in as many ways as he can. "When his power 
of combining them is exhausted, another child is called upon 
to arrange them in some other way, the teacher all the while 
repeating questions like these : What form do these sticks repre- 
sent ? What lines would you use to copy it ? &c. Occasionally 
the teacher may infuse new life into the exercise, by suggesting a 
new application. For instance : combining the sticks in the fol- 
lowing manner, 




she may ask whether they recognize this form ? As a conse* 
quence of this hint, several other letters will probably make their 
appearance, suggested by the children themselves. If the chil- 
dren make a combination of the triangle, it is for the teacher to 
suggest some varieties of triangles produced by the difference in 
the angles. The question may occasionally be brought up, 
whether, for instance, 



424 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. FIRST STEP. 




have to be received as different combinations — the one being only 
the reverse of the other. The answer to this is, that, geometri- 
cally considered, they are the same, but different as objects of 
drawing. Nevertheless, considering the immense variety of forms 
which the combinations of even a few lines afford, the teacher 
would do better to dispense with designs which are merely the 
reverse of others, or are simply modified by having their lines 
somewhat shorter or longer. 

After the combinations have been made, by means of sticks, 
before the eyes of the children, they are required to draw them 
from memory upon their slates. After this, the teacher goes 
round, selects the .best ones, and draws them on the blackboard. 
If she finds some that are wrong, she may submit them to the 
criticism of the class, by asking them in what they are wrong ? 

Plate II. contains combinations with three lines. 

Plate II. 




A 



Exercise 3. — Combinations with Four Lines. 

The use of the sticks will not be found any longer necessary, 
in order to illustrate this and the following exercises. The teacher 
may simply tell the children to combine four lines in as many ways 
as they can, and collect their best productions. The blackboard 
will soon be filled with little designs. As before hinted, the 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. FIRST STEP. 



425 



teacher would do well to suggest occasionally a four-sided figure, 
or a letter formed of four lines, 



or give a rough outline of an object, 



since these designs will be productive of others. 
Plate III. contains combinations with four lines. 



Plate III. 




L V_7 




A 



A~A 



These exercises should be extended to figures composed of 
five, six, seven, and eight lines successively. 

Before leaving the method of conducting these exercises en- 
tirely to the discretion of the teacher, we will make a few sugges- 
tions : 

1. The principle of combination is that of invention. The 
inventive power is not, in the strictest sense, a creative power, 



426 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. — SECOND STEP. 



but simplyJlie power of forming a new aggregate by the different 
application of the same elements. The feeling with which the 
child regards his productions, which probably he never saw be- 
fore, and which, perhaps, never existed, is one of intense joy and 
gratification. This gratification is shared by the teacher, who 
sees, in many instances, combinations arise which surpass her ex- 
pectations, and which surprise her as an entire novelty. 

2. Invention, at this Step, will not thrive in a healthy man- 
ner, unless the teacher gives occasionally some useful hints and 
suggestions, by indicating the directions in which the inventive 
talents of the children may be exerted to the greatest advantage. 
Again, she must discourage tasteless combinations, and contrast 
those that show unity and distinct arrangement of parts, with 
those that are loose and disjointed. 

3. It will be seen, that in the combinations of angles, tri- 
angles, four-sided figures, &c, the number four, and its multiples, 
eight, twelve, sixteen, &c, will be the most appropriate for regu- 
lar and tasteful combinations. 

SECOND STEP. 



Exercise 1. — Combinations of Four Right Angles. 

The combination of four right angles will suggest two prin- 
cipal forms of arrangement — that of the square, and that of the 



Plate IV. 
2 



r 



r 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. SECOND STEP. 



427 



cross — as seen in Plate IV., figs. 1 and 2. Besides these, other 
forms of a mixed character may be produced. After the teacher 
has collected a great number of designs of the children, and 
drawn them on the blackboard, she may make an interesting 
examination as to their innate feelings of taste, by asking which 
of these designs they like best ? She will generally find their 
answers in accordance with the judgment of educated persons. 
Without reasoning, at this Step, upon the laws of taste, she may 
nevertheless practically let them see, that in all the good designs, 
the removal of but one part would destroy the unity and beauty 
of the whole ; whilst in those which are disjointed, the effect is 
hardly perceptible. For instance : 






Such combinations hardly deserve the name of designs, and must 
be rejected, not on the principle of combination, but on that of 
taste. 

Exercise 2. — Combinations of Four Acute Angles. 
Plate V. 





428 



INVENTIVE DK AWING. SECOND STEP. 



Exercise 3. — Combinations of Four Obtuse Angles. 
Plate VI. 




/"A 



Exercise 4. — Combinations of Four Right and Four Acute Angles. 
Plate VII. 




vV 



v 






Exercise 5. — Combinations of Four Right and Four Obtuse Angles. 
Plate VIII. 




INVENTIVE DRAWING. — SECOND STEP. 



42£ 




Exercise 6. — Combinations of Four Right, Four Obtuse, and Four 
Acute Angles. 

Plate IX. 






X 



430 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. — SECOND STEP. 



Exercise 7. — Combinations of Triangles. 

"We will only allude to the order of these combinations, with- 
out giving diagrams, since the children can produce them now 
with ease : 

(a) Combination of four rectangular triangles. (Plate X.) 

(b) Combination of four acute-angular triangles. (Plate XI.) 

(c) Combination of four obtuse-angular triangles. (Plate XII.) 
(c?) Combination of all the above kinds of triangles, indis- 
criminately united. (Plate XIII.) 

Plate X. 





Plate XI. 





A 



Plate XII. 





INVENTIVE DRAWING. SECOND STEP. 

Plate XIII. 



431 




Exercise 8. — Combination of Quadrangular Figures. 

(a) Combination of squares. (b) Of rectangles. (c) Of 
rhombs. (rf) Of rhomboids. (e) Of trapeziums. (/) Of 
trapezoids. (g) Of all the above kinds of quadrangular figures, 
indiscriminately united. 

Note. — Some of the above-named forms are less adapted to 
combinations than others. Of those that are very applicable to 
architectural designs, we will name the rectangle, in connection 
with the trapezoid, as seen in Plate XIV. All, however, can be 
used for ornamental purposes, as seen in Plate XV. 



Plate XIV. 




n 



s 



432 INVENTIVE DRAWING. SECOND STEP. 

Plate XV. 




"We have only shown a few designs that can be obtained by 
each exercise ; but any observing teacher will be astonished at 
the multiplicity and beauty of the designs that may be obtained 
from children of even medium capacity. It will convince any 
one, that childhood is the age for combinations, and that the ima- 
gination at this age is more fertile than in the adult. 

The limitation of the number of forms under the preceding 
heads was at first necessary in order to cause their inventive 
power to keep pace with their power of execution. Hereafter, 
the number need not be limited, but it will be subject to the fitness 
required in its application. 



INVENTIVE DEAWING. THIED STEP. 



433 



THIRD STEP. 

COMBINATIONS OF CURVED LINES. 

Exercise 1. — The Idea of Concave and Convex Developed. 

The line which is used in all the exercises of this Step, is a 
part of the circle, called an arc. (See exercises on " Form.") 
Some properties of the curved line have already been discussed 
under the head of " Form." There remains, however, one prop- 
erty to be developed, namely, that of concave and convex, which 
the teacher can do somewhat after the following plan : 

The teacher presents to the class an object in the form of a 
hollow hemisphere, and asks whether they see any difference be- 
tween one side of the object and the other ? The children will 
probably say that one of its sides is hollow, whilst the other is not. 
If the teacher wishes to illustrate the subject in a still more strik- 
ing manner, she may show that the hollow side acts as a cup, and 
is capable of holding other objects, whilst they would roll off from 
the other side. She may show them a solid sphere, and ask them 
whether the surface they see is hollow, or not ? A watch glass 

Plate XVI. 




434 INVENTIVE DRAWING. THIRD STEP. 

may also serve as an illustration of the idea of hollow, and its 
opposite. The teacher may then draw an arc on the blackboard, 
and ask them to point out its hollow side, and the one which is 
not hollow. She then gives them the name of concave, instead of 
hollow, and of convex, to designate the opposite of the line. 

After this, the children might draw the arc in different posi- 
tions, as seen in Plate XVI. 



Exercise 2. — Curvilinear Angles. 

"Whilst the different sides of straight-linear angles are based 
upon the width of their opening, we shall find that the distinctive 
feature of curvilinear angles is based on the concavity or convex- 
ity of its lines. In order to develop this idea, let the teacher draw 
the angles (see Plate XVII.), and ask the following questions : 
Suppose, in fig. 1, you were placed in the inside of the angle, 
viewing the sides of its arcs, which sides would be turned toward 
you — the concave, or the convex sides ? The concave sides. 
Let us view fig. 2 in the same manner. "What sides of the arcs 
do you see ? The convex sides. And in fig. 3 ? One arc shows 
its concave side, and the other its convex side. The teacher then 
gives the name of concave angle to fig. 1 ; fig. 2 is called the 
convex angle ; fig. 3 would, according to its properties, be called 
concave-convex angle ; but in order to have a shorter word, and on 
account of its mixed character, let us call it a mixed angle. The 
children may now draw these different angles in different positions, 
and with their openings of different degrees. 

Plate XVII. 






INVENTIVE DRAWING. THIRD STEP. 



435 



Curvilinear Combinations. 

The curved line is in preference the line of grace and beauty, 
and offers a greater variety of pleasing designs than the straight 
line. The child will delight in the increased scope which its ex- 
ercises will afford to his imagination. A curvilinear angle, for 
instance, will present to him the image of a cup, which, with the 
addition of some marginal ornaments, may branch out into the 
likeness of a flower. The effect of this discovery is twofold : it 
must lead the attention of the child toward nature's fairest pro- 
ductions — the flowers, &c. — and the treasures of art ; and, on the 
other hand, he may easily be led to apply his inventive talent to 
the production of tasteful patterns, for domestic use as well as for 
the requirements of industry. The true educator cannot but ap- 
prove of means given to him to develop that eminently moral 
power, taste, for which our schools have been unable hitherto to 
contribute even the smallest mite, unless by the slavish imitation 
of copies in drawing. This, however, considers taste but as an 
acquired faculty, whilst the means presented here propose to ex- 
pand the innate germs of a divine power into evergreen branches 
of grace and loveliness. 



Exercise 3. — Combination of Four Concave Angles. 
Plate XVIII. 




436 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. THIED STEP. 



Exercise 4. — Combination of Four Convex Angles, 
Plate XIX. 






Exercise 5. — Combination of Four Mixed Angles. 
Plate XX. 




Exercise 6. — Combination of a Certain Number of Concave, 
Convex, and Mixed Angles. 

Plate XXI. 





INVENTIVE DRAWING. THIRD STEP. 



437 



Exercise 7. — Combination of Two-sided Figures. 

There are three kinds of them, as seen in Plate XXII., figs. 
A, B, c, a definition of which must be made by the children them- 
selves. The form of A is sometimes called a double convex lens ; 
that of b, a crescent. Fig. c has a peculiar feature, in having both 
angles outside. These angles are called, in geometry, re-entrant 
angles. 

Plate XXII. 




After this explanation, the pupils proceed to the combination 
of the above figures. 



Exercise 8. — Combination of Triangular Figures. 

We content ourselves with giving the different kinds of tri- 
angles which can be used for these combinations. (See Plate 
XXIII.) 

The children will take pleasure in using them for the invention 
of many tasteful designs. 

Plate XXIII. 






438 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. — THIRD STEP. 






Exercise 9. — Combination of Four-sided Figures. 

"We give, in Plate XXIV., a variety of four-sided figures ob- 
tained under this condition. Figs. 1, 2, 3, have all their angles 
inside. Figs. 4, 5, 6, those which have one re-entrant angle. 
Figs. 7, 8, 9, have two, three, or four re-entrant angles. 

Plate XXIV. 








Of the immense variety of combinations which this exercise 
affords, we can only give a faint idea in Plate XXV. 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. THIRD STEP. 439 

Plate XXV. 





440 INVENTIVE DRAWING. THIRD STEP. 

The fig. in Plate XXVI. combines three and four-sided figures. 
Plate XXVI. 




The design in Plate XXVII. shows how easily curvilinear 
figures can be shaped into flower-like forms, which are often found 
in patterns for manufacturing purposes. To draw, however, a de- 
sign of the above kind correctly, and with the attributes of good 
taste, several powers besides that of invention must necessarily 
co-operate. Of these, we mention particularly a mathematical 
appreciation of the laws of Regularity and Symmetry, to supply 
which will be the object of the next Step. 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. — FOURTH STEP 
Plate XXVII. 



Ul 




FOURTH STEP. 

DICTATION OF REGULAR AND SYMMETRICAL DESIGNS. 

Introduction. 

When we allowed the inventive faculties of the children a 
scope unfettered by exact measurement, it was done with the ex- 
pectation that their sense of taste would guide them almost uncon- 
sciously to give to their designs the necessary exactness of delinea- 
tion. It becomes, however, at this Step, the teacher's duty to 
develop, in a systematic manner, a mathematical conception of 
exact measurement, which will enhance the merit of the produc- 
tions of her class. To do this, she must begin with the division 
of the simple line. 
19* 



442 INVENTIVE DRAWING. FOURTH STEP. 

Exercise 1. — Division of Lines into Equal Parts. 

The exercises under this head may be treated in the following 
order : 

1. Let the children divide given lines into two, four, eight 
equal parts. 

2. Into three, six, and nine equal parts. 

3. Into five and ten equal parts. 

Note. — The lines may be straight or curved. Exercises of 
this kind will also afford a practical illustration of the nature and 
relation of fractions. 



Designs Based on the Division of Lines of Two or Four Equal 

Parts. 

Some Laws of Taste Developed. — The object of this exercise is 
to fix certain points in a given square, from which other lines may 
be drawn, till we obtain a simple design. 

In order to introduce the pupils to this new kind of construction, 
we advise the teacher to make them draw the first design under 
her dictation, as will be shown in the next model lesson. 

Exercise 2. — Dictation. 

Teacher {dictating). — Draw a square ; then divide each of its 
sides into two equal parts, and draw from each of the points of 
intersection a line to the opposite point. How many squares have 
you thus obtained? 

Children. — Four small squares. 

Teacher. — Now draw two diagonal lines ; that is, lines which 
are drawn from one corner of the square to the other. How 
many triangles have you now got ? What kind of triangles ? 
How do you like the design? (See Plate XXVIII., fig. 1.) Let 
us try to improve it somewhat, by removing some lines according 
to my further dictation. Rub out the right half of the upper 
horizontal side of the original square. Do the same with the 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. — FOURTH STEP. 



443 



lower half of the right vertical side ; the same with the left half 
of the lower horizontal side ; the same with the upper half of the 
left vertical side. (Plate XXVIII., fig. 2.) What have you 
now left ? Do you like the design better than before ? Why ? 

Plate XXVIII. 







The reason for liking a thing better, or for giving a preference 
in matters of taste, seems at first above the capacity of children. 
And yet such a question might elicit very sensible answers, and 
not the less true from not being scientifically given. Each child 
sees that the four remaining triangles are now more distinctly seen, 
because they have been separated from each other. Again, those 
triangles are all situated in different positions with reference to 
each other, which affords a pleasant variety to the eye. Dis- 
tinction of parts and variety of p>osition therefore form an impor- 
tant requisite of good taste. 



Exercise 3. — Dictation of Design in Plate XXIX., Fig. 2. 

Draw another square. Divide each side into four equal parts. 
How is this to be done ? Next draw from all these points (ex- 
cept from those in the centre of each side), lines to points directly 
opposite. Describe the parts of the figure as it appears now. 
What form do you see in the centre of the figure ? And what 
forms are situated on each side of that central square ? What forms 



444 INVENTIVE DRAWING. — FOURTH STEP. 

are situated at the corners of the original square? (See Plate XXIX., 
fig. 1.) Now draw a line from the left upper corner of the central 
square, to the centre of the upper horizontal side of the large 
square ; next from the right upper corner of the central square a 
line to the right upper corner of the large square ; after this, from 
the same corner of the central square, a line to the middle of the 
right vertical side of the large square ; again, from the lower 
right corner of the central square a line to the right lower cor- 
ner of the large ' square, &c. &c. The teacher will easily see 
how the dictation is to be completed, as shown by the light 
dotted lines in fig. 1. "When all the necessary lines have been 
dictated, it will be found that the design lacks that distinctness to 
which we have alluded in a former dictation. In order to effect 
this, some lines, or rather portions of lines, must be removed. 
The teacher may now continue : " Remove the left half of the 
upper horizontal, and the right half of the lower horizontal side 
of the large square. Again, remove the upper half of the right 
vertical and the lower half of the left vertical side of the large 
square." 

The children will now see more clearly the plan of the pro- 
posed design ; but there are still some superfluous lines. In order 
to test their feeling of taste, the teacher might ask the class what 
lines they think should be further erased ? Very probably some 
children will propose to remove all the pieces marked a (see 
Diagram). In addition to this, the teacher may tell them to 
erase all those lines which form continuations of the sides of the 
central square. It now stands as seen in fig. 2. 

The design being now completed, the teacher wishes the class 
to describe all the portions of the design. Of what does it con- 
sist ? Of one square surrounded by four rhomboids. Repeat 
this. 

For the sake of improving their crude notions of taste, a judi- 
cious teacher may ask questions like the following, if her class is 
sufficiently advanced : Of what did you say the design consists ? 
Are the parts all uniform, or is there some variety in them ? 
Are the rhomboids all placed in the same manner ? Before you 
erased some of the lines, did the rhomboids appear distinctly? 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. FOURTH STEP 



445 



Did they afterward ? "When did they show to best advantage ? 
If I removed one of the rhomboids, would the design look so 
well as before ? Why not ? 

The teacher.may also take occasion, if she finds a design badly 
drawn, from a want of accuracy in dividing the lines into four 
equal parts, or for other reasons, to contrast such a design, as seen 
in Plate XXIX., fig. 3, with one that is correct, and ask which 
they like best ? Why ? 



^5 


1 


■ d 


a\ 








yL , 


■ i 




Without wishing to anticipate the answers of the children, we 
would remind the teacher, that the size of the central square in 
fig. 3 is too large, at the expense of the rhomboids, and thus pre- 
vents the design from being symmetrical. 

It has already been suggested, that in these questions on taste, 
the teacher must neither reason nor lecture before the children, 
but simply ask questions, and lead them to discover the right prin- 
ciple, by using language which they can comprehend. But 
whether this is found practicable or not, one thing is sure : the 
teacher who would cultivate inventive talent in the children, as 
well as her own judgment about designs, must clearly comprehend 
that unity, variety, distinctness, and symmetry are the great lead- 
ing principles of taste, as exemplified by all the works of the 
Creator. 

It is not intended that the teacher should dictate all the de- 
signs of this kind, but that the children should ultimately be 
induced to invent others. The teacher may occasionally suggest 
a beginning, and allow them to finish the design. The next exer- 



44:6 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. FOUETH STEP. 



cise will render the path of invention so easy, that the children 
will not fail to enter upon it. 



Exercise 4. — Designs Based upon the Division of Lines into 
Three Equal Parts. 

To show the variety even in simple designs, let us assume 
each side of a square divided into three equal parts, and indi- 
cate these divisions by dots. 

Now we will make a condition, that lines may be drawn from 
these dots to those opposite, or situated on some other line. The 
following diagrams show figures that may be thus produced after 
erasing portions of the original outline. (See Plate XXX., figs. 
1, 2, 3, 4.) 

Pj.ATE XXX. 




Suggestions in regard to Inventing Regular Designs. 

If we wish to add more details to these simple designs, it can 
be done in two ways : (a) By the subdivision of the lines in the 
design, (b) By the repetition of the same design. "We will give 
examples of each : 

(a) By Subdivision. — By this method we consider the simple 
design as the one intended to receive the additional details, which 
are dependent on the division of its lines. For instance : select- 
ing fig. 1, in Plate XXX., as the fundamental design, we obtain, 
by the subdivision of its lines, and the addition of new ones, 
the designs seen in Plate XXXI. Or, selecting fig. 2, in Plate 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. FOURTH STEP. 

Plate XXXI. 



447 





Plate XXXII. 




XXX., for a similar purpose, we obtain the designs seen in Plate 
XXXII. 

(b) By Repetition. — By this method we repeat the same de- 
sign a certain number of times, like a pattern. The object of 
such an arrangement is, to get an enlarged design round an appar- 
ently new centre, of which, however, some superfluous parts will 
have to be removed. 

"We have chosen fig. 2, in Plate XXX., to be repeated four 
times. (See Plate XXXIII., fig. 1.) But now the question 
arises, which lines are to be removed, in order to give the re- 



448 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. — FOUKTII fcTEP. 

Plate XXXIII. 
1 2 

A 



"7Y" 


7f 


r\ 


"7\ 




maining parts a more distinct and pleasing appearance. There 
will be three ways to perform this operation, namely : 

1. "We may remove the middle part of each side of one of the 
small squares (Plate XXXIII., fig. 2) ; or 

2. The extreme parts of each side of the same squares. 

3. The two middle parts of each side of the large square. 

It may also be appropriate to remove the lines a b and c d. 
These examples will show what a scope there is for the variety of 
designs. They are innumerable, and each scholar with but mod- 
erate talent will find some new ones which he may call Ms own, 
and will appreciate the more as the result of his inventive power. 
It is always a pleasant feeling to invent ; but when invention 
combines taste with utility, it will be doubly pleasant. 

Care must be taken to change the outlines of designs, so as to 
produce more variety. Many of our patterns that are applied to 
practical purposes are within a triangle ; others within a rectangle, 
hexagon, octagon. The latter of these figures, which is easy of 
construction, and affords much scope for variety, will here recer" * 
some consideration. 

Construction of the Octagon. 

The teacher dictates to the children : Draw a square with two 
diagonals, and mark the middle of each side of the square by a 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. — FOURTH STEP. 449 

dot. Measure the distance from this middle to the centre of the 
square (where the diagonals meet), and mark off the same dis- 
tance from this centre on the diagonal lines. Finally, unite the 
points obtained by the last operation with the points in the centre 
of the sides of the square, by lines, the sum of which constitutes 
the regular octagon. (Plate XXXI V.) The square may now be 
removed, having only served for the construction of the octagon. 

Plate XXXIV. 




There is another method, which dispenses with the square, and 
only makes use of the bisection of the right angle. It is this : 
Draw a cross, by means of a vertical line bisecting a horizontal 
line of the same length at right angles. Bisect these right angles, 
by lines of the same length as the other two. Lastly, unite the 
ends of these lines, and we have the octagon. 

The teacher would do well to point out to the class, that the 
four long lines alluded to in the second construction of the octa- 
gon, are in reality but diagonals of the same. These diagonals 
will be an important aid for dictating or making a design, since, 
from their equal distribution, it is possible to fix many other points 
upon them at regular distances. 

In proceeding once more to the dictation of a design, in order 
to induce the class to produce others, the teacher will find that it 
is possible, by one well-applied remark, to produce the drawing 



4:50 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. — FOURTH STEP. 



of several lines at once, instead of giving directions for the draw- 
ing of every separate line: 

Dictation of a Design, in the Octagon. (See Plate XXXV., Fig. 1.) 

Draw an octagon, and let the four lines stand which were 
necessary for its construction. What are these lines called ? 
How are they divided by the point of intersection ? Now divide 
each half of the diagonals into two equal parts, as also each side 
of the octagon. Next draw from each of the points which are 
situated halfway between the point of intersection and the ends 
of a diagonal, two small lines to the centres of the two nearest 
sides of the octagon. How many such lines have you to draw ? 
Now let us remove all the superfluous lines. Erase the two ex- 
treme quarters of each diagonal, and the design is completed. Of 
what parts does it consist ? What do we call the four-sided 
figures round the centre of the design ? What those situated near 
its corners ? Now erase your figure. Who could draw it entirely 
from memory, and better than before ? 

In Plate XXXV., fig. 2, there is another design, made by the 

Plate XXXV. 






same construction, with a few modifications, and resulting in what 
the children might call "a wheel," formed of eight trapezoids. 
In Plate XXXVI., fig. 1, the design is based upon eight diagonals 
(different from those used in the former design), which, after inter- 
secting each other, are slightly modified by erasing some of their 
interior parts. 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. — FOURTH STEP. 451 

Plate XXXVI. 




Eight diagonals, different from those used in the preceding dia- 
grams, were necessary to obtain the ingenious design in Plate 
XXXVI., fig. 2. After drawing these eight diagonals, which 
will form two squares, a smaller octagon will appear, the sides of 
which are to be divided into three equal parts. After uniting the 
opposite points of these sides by parallel lines, and removing their 
central portion, we obtain eight small squares entangled within 
each other. Doubling these squares, in order to make them ap- 
pear like solid frames, the effect becomes more striking. 

The pupil will easily invent many more designs, by dividing 
the sides of the octagon into three equal parts, and drawing from 
the points of intersection lines to the opposite points. 

CURVILINEAR DESIGNS, WITH DUE REGARD TO THE LAWS OF 
REGULARITY AND SYMMETRY. 

Measurement of Arcs. 

Since the invention of curvilinear designs has already been 
treated in the Second Step of this course, a few words only may 
be required respecting the measurement of curves, and their proper 
application. 

In drawing or copying an arc in a regular manner, it will be 
found convenient to suppose it subtended by a' straight line, from 
the middle of which a perpendicular is erected, as seen in the 
following figure. The straight line which forms the base, indi- 



452 



INVENTIVE DRAWING. — FOURTH STEP. 




cates the direct distance from one point of the arc to the other, 
whilst the perpendicular measures the concavity of the arc. 

In drawing, for instance, the shape of a cup or vase, a recti- 
linear triangle will be found of great advantage, to support the 
curves. (See figs. 1, 2.) If two of the. lines are bisected, the 
Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 






curves may assume a graceful waving character, as seen in fig. 3. 

It is easily seen how the designs suggested in the previous 
Step may be used for the regular application of curvilinear designs. 

The design in Plate XXXVII. is based upon the cross-shaped 
figure in Plate XXX., fig. 2. Let the class find others. 



Plate XXXVII. 




INVENTIVE DRAWING. FOURTH STEP. 



453 



Drawing of the Circle. 

"We conclude this course with the circle, which displays the 
greatest regularity and symmetry of outline, and which on this 
account it is difficult to draw correctly without the aid of a mathe- 
matical instrument. Since, however, the circle, or figures resem- 
bling it — the ellipse, oval, &c. — are often required in making illus- 
trations, or in delineating artificial and natural objects, it is desir- 
able to train the hand in drawing this difficult figure as accurately 
as possible. 

In doing this, it is safe to support the circle by the same 
lines which were necessary for the construction of the regular 
octagon. Considering their point of intersection as the centre 
of the circle, these lines will form eight radii, over the ends of 
which the circumference may be drawn. (See fig. 1, below.) 

Another method, which will at the same time be found con- 
venient for drawing hemisphere maps with meridians, requires 
merely two equal lines intersecting at right angles. If we draw 
an arc erected on d f of the height of a c, and afterward others 
at stated distances, till the last one passes over e (the end of the 
radius a e), we have in the last line produced a semicircle. Re- 
peating the same operation on the other side, another semicircle is 
produced. Thus we obtain the whole circle, intersected by arcs, 
which in a map might be termed meridians. 



Fig. 1. 




454 INVENTIVE DRAWING. — FOUKTII STEP. 

It need hardly be said, that many beautiful designs might be 
drawn in a circle, on the basis of its diameters, and assisted by a 
regular division of its quadrants, and hence of the angles round 
the centre. These designs must necessarily display an endless 
variety, since all the elements of form may be arranged around 
one rallying point, branching out in all directions. 



PROGRAMME 

OF 



COURSE OF ORAL INSTRUCTION, 



FIRST THREE YEARS IN THE OSWEGO SCHOOLS. 



First Year, or C Class, Primary. 

FIRST TERM. 

1st Fortnight. — Lessons on Human Body and Mammals. 

2d " " Form and Color. 

3d " " Elementary Geography, or Place and 

Size. 
4th " ° Objects and Inventive Drawing. 

5th " " Moral Instruction and Birds. 

6th " " Human Body and Color. 

1th " " Form and Geography, or Place. 

SECOND TERM. 

1st Fortnight. — Lessons on Size and Objects. 
2d " " Inventive Drawing and Moral Instruc- 

tion. 
3d " " Mammals and Human Body. 

4th " " Color and Form. 



456 PROGRAMME OF STUDIES. 

5th Fortnight. — Lessons on Place, or Geography, and Objects. 
6th " " Inventive Drawing and Moral Instruc- 

tion. 
1th " " Human Bod)'-, Fishes, and Reptiles. 

8th " « Sounds and Weight. 

THIRD TERM. 

1st Fortnight. — Lessons on Color and Form. 

2d " " Geography and Objects. 

3d " " Human Body and Mammals. 

4th " " Size and Weight. 

5th " " Sounds and Moral Instruction. 

6th u " Inventive Drawing and Geography. 



Second Year, or B Class, Primary. 

FIRST TERM. 

1st Month. — Lessons on Form and Inventive Drawing. 
2d " " Mammals and Color. 

3d " " Objects and Geography. 

4th " " Sounds and Weight. 

SECOND TERM. 

1st Month. — Lessons on Size and Geography. 

2d " " Mammals, Insects, and Objects. 

3d " " Form and Color. 

4th " " Moral Instruction and Drawing. 

THIRD TERM. 

1st Month. — Lessons on Objects, Mammals, and Birds. 
2d " " Elementary Geography and Color. 

3d " " Form, alternating with Drawing and 

Moral Instruction. 



PROGRAMME OF STUDIES. 457 

Third Year, or A Class, Primary. 

FIRST TERM. 

1st Month. — Lessons on Objects and Inventive Drawing. 
2d " " Plants and Language. 

3 c? " " Color and Elementary Geography. 

Ath " " Form and Moral Instruction. 

SECOND TERM. 

1st Month.-— Lessons on Geography and Inventive Drawing. 

2d " " Objects and Plants. 

3d " " Color and Language. 

Ath " " Moral Instruction and Form. 

THIRD TERM. 

1st Month. — Lessons on Geography and Language. 
2d " " Objects and Animals. 

3d " " Form and Color. 

Exercises in Beading, Spelling, and Number daily, with each 
class. All new words occurring in Second, Third, or Fourth Step 
lessons to be spelled by the class. Any portion of the school not 
employed in recitation, should be occupied with their slates in 
printing or writing, inventive drawing, making out tables, or re- 
producing lessons. Some definite work should be assigned to all 
the divisions of the school for every hour in the day. 

It will be remembered that all First Step lessons belong to the 
first year of the child's school-life, the Second Step to the second 
year, &c. This, however, can only be considered as a general 
direction. 

Teachers may find it necessary not unfrequently to vary some- 
what this arrangement, to adapt it to the varying ages and capaci- 
ties of children. "We cannot too carefully study the character of 
the children we have to educate, observing the effect of each les- 
20 



4:58 PROGRAMME OF STUDIES. 

son, on their minds. If the lesson fails to interest the children, 
we may regard it as a very sure indication that the lesson is either 
not properly presented, or not adapted to them. It may be above, 
or it may be below them. The skilful teacher will carefully ob- 
serve these things, and change the character of her lessons to 
adapt them to the children before her. 



DAILY PROGRAMME 



OSWEGO PRIMARY SCHOOL 



C Class, or First Year. 

A. M. 

9 : 00 to 9 : 15. — Opening Exercises. 

9:15" 9 : 35.— Sub. 4, Phonic Reading. 

9 : 35 " 9 : 40. — Physical Exercises. 

9 : 40 " 10 : 00. — General Lesson. 

10 : 00 " 10 : 20.— Sub. 3, Phonic Reading. 

10:20 " 10 : 35.— Recess. 

10 : 35 " 10 : 55. — General Lesson. 
10:55 " 11:00.— Marching. 

11 : 00 " 11 : 20.— Sub. 2, Phonic Reading. 

11:20 " 11:35.— Recess. 

11 : 35 « 11 : 50.— Sub. 1, Number, with Objects. 

11 : 50 " 11 : 55. — Singing, and Dismissal of Youngest Chil- 

dren. 
11 : 55 " 12 : 10.— Sub. 2, Number, with Objects. 
12 : 10 " 12 : 30.— Sub. 1, Phonic Reading. 
12 : 30 to 1 : 30.— Intermission. 

P. M. 

1 : 30 to 1 : 50. — General Lesson. 

1 : 50 " 2 : 5.— Sub. 3, Number, with Objects. 

2:5" 2 : 10.— Physical Exercises. 



460 PKOGKAMME OF STUDIES. 

2 : 10 to 2 : 25.— Sub. 4, Number, with Objects. 
2 : 25 " 2 : 35. — Singing, Roll-call, and Dismissal of Young- 
est Children. 
2 : 35 " 3 : 00.— Reading from Books. 

Children not engaged in Class exercises, are occupied with 
their slates in printing, or drawing. 

B Class, or Second Year. 
a. M. 

9 : 00 to 9 : 15. — Opening Exercises. 

9 : 15 " 9 : 40.— Sub. 1, Reading. Sub. 2, Making Tables 

on Slates. 
9 : 40 " 9 : 45. — Physical Exercises. 
9 : 45 " 10 : 5.— Sub. 2, Reading. Sub. 1, Making Tables 

on Slates. 
10 : 5 " 10 : 20.— Phonic Spelling, both Divisions. 
10: 20 " 10:35.— Recess. 
10 : 35 " 10 : 55.— Examine Work on Slates. 

10 : 55 " 11 : 20.— General Lesson. 

11 : 20 " 11 : 35.— Recess. 

11:35 " 12:00.— Sub. 2, Number. Sub. 1, Print Phonic 
Spelling. 

12 : 00 " 12 : 5.— Singing, and Dismissal of Sub. 2. 
12 : 5 " 12 : 30.— Sub. 1, Phonic Spelling from Slates. 

12 : 30 to 1 : 30. — Intermission. 

P. M. 

1 : 30 to 1 : 50. — General Lesson. 

1 : 50 " 2 : 5. — Inventive Drawing. 

2 : 5 " 2 : 10. — Physical Exercises. 

2:10" 2 : 25.— Sub. 2, Phonic Spelling. Sub. 1, Drawing, 

or Printing. 
2 : 25 " 2 : 45. — Sub. 1, Number. Sub. 2, Drawing, or 

Printing. 
2 : 45 " 3 : 00. — Examination of Work on Slates. 



PROGRAMME OF STUDIES. 461 

A Class, or Third Year. 
a. M. 

9 : 00 to 9 : 15. — Opening Exercises. 

9:15" 9 : 40.— Sub. 1, Beading. Sub. 2, Preparing Read- 
ing Lesson. 
9:40 " 9 : 45. — Physical Exercises. 
9 : 45 " 10 : 5.— Sub. 2, Reading. Sub. 1, Preparing Tables 

on Slates. 
10 : 5 " 10 : 20.— Sub. 1, Phonic Spelling. Sub. 2, Prepar- 

ing Tables on Slates. 
10 : 20 " 10 : 35.— Recess. 

10:35 " 10:55.— Sub. 1, Number. Sub. 2, Drawing on 
Slates 

10 : 55 " 11 : 20.— General Lesson. 

11 : 20 " 11 : 35.— Recess. 

11:35 " 11:55.— Sub. 2, Number. Sub. 1, Drawing on 

Slates. 
11: 55 " 12: 00.— Singing. 

12 : 00 " 12 : 30. — Examination of Work on Slates. 

12 : 30 to 1 : 30.— Intermission. 

P. M. 

1 : 30 to 1 : 55. — General Lesson. 

1 : 55 " 2 : 10. — Tuesday and Thursday, Inventive Drawing. 

Monday, "Wednesday, and Friday, Read- 
ing Stories to the Children. 

2:10" 2 : 15.— Physical Exercises. 

2:15" 2 : 35.— Sub. 2, Phonic Spelling. Sub. 1, Occupied 
with Slates. 

2 : 35 " 3 : 00.— Examination of Slates. 






462 PROGRAMME OF STUDIES. 

The following Programme will show more minutely the work in 
Object Lessons. It is taken from the books in Model School, 
being a Programme for the Second Month of the First Term, 
from May 20th to June 9th. 

C Class. 
Birds. 

Eedbreast. — Parts that distinguish. General conversation; 
cultivate humane feelings. 

Peacock. — How distinguished. Moral lesson. 

Lark. — How distinguished. Number of parts — Two eyes, 
two wings, one body, one tail, &c. 

Parrot. — How distinguished. Names of parts. 

Stork. — How distinguished. Position of parts. 

Falcon. — How distinguished. Principal and secondary parts, 
or parts of parts. 

Dove. — Number and position of parts. 

Nightingale. — Names of parts which are distinguished as 
principal and secondary. 

Place. — First Step. 

1. Objects placed in different positions by the teacher ; chil- 
dren to imitate with minute accuracy. 

2. As 1. 

3. Objects placed in different positions ; teaching the meaning 
of the term to express the position ; as, beside, betioeen, under ; 
and the children imitate and apply the terms ; then place the 
objects as directed, without a pattern. 

4 and 5. As 3. • 

6. Objects placed ; their position described, and represented 
on the blackboard. 

7 and 8. As 4 and 5. 

Size. — First Step. 

1. Idea of large and small. 

2. " long and short. 



PROGRAMME OF STUDIES. 463 

3. Idea of wide and narrow. 

4. " thick and thin. 

5. " deep and shallow. 

6. " deep and high. 

7 and 8. Various objects described with reference to all their 
qualities. 

B Class. 

Color. 

1. Yellow, Ked, Blue, Orange, Green, Purple, Citrine, Olive, 
Eusset, distinguished, named, and matched. 

2. Children form patterns with colored cards. First, like 
those made by the teacher, and then as they will. They are, 
however, limited as to the colors they put together, in order to 
accustom the eye to harmonious combination of colors merely. 

Yellow and Purple. 
Red and Green. 
Orange and Blue. 

3. Orange and Purple. 

Green and Purple. 
Orange, Green, and Purple. 

4. Citrine and Eed. 

Citrine and Blue. 
Citrine, Red, and Blue. 

5. Russet with Blue. 

Russet with Yellow. 

Russet with Blue and Yellow. 

6. Olive with Red. 

Olive with Yellow. 

Olive with Red and Yellow. 

7. Black with Red. 

Black with Yellow. 

Black with Red and Yellow. 

8. Black with Orange. 

Black with Green. 

Black with Orange and Green. 



464 PROGRAMME OF STUDIES. 

Though the exercises in Color Patterning are not exhausted, 
and must be referred to again, it will be better now, for the sake 
of variety, to proceed to the Third Step in Color. 

1. Re-calling Color. — Lesson on Red. 

2. " Yellow. 

3. " Blue. 

4. " Green. 

5. " Orange and Purple. 

6. " Citrine, Russet, and Olive. 

7. General Term. — Beauty of Color, &c. Color of Inanimate 
Nature. 

8. General Term. — Color of Animated Nature. 

Place. — Cardinal Points. 

1. Idea of East and West. 

2. Idea of North and South. 

3. Idea of Cardinal Points. 

4. Idea of term, Cardinal Points. 

5. Exercises on the term, Cardinal Points. 

6. Exercises on all the Points. 

7 and 8. Necessity for having Four Points. 

A Class. 

Birds. 
1 and 2. Eagle. 

3. Condor. 

4. Falcon. 

Place. 

Practice in drawing to Scale. 

Schoolroom, adjoining rooms, school building. 

Schoolroom with furniture, &c. 

Language. — Begin the Course. 
Forming sentences with the name of an Object. 



PKOGKAMME OF STUDIES. 465 

Forming sentences with a word expressing Quality. 
Forming sentences with some part of the verb " to be." 

Example. — The Pencil is Sharp. 

Forming sentences in which different qualities are ascribed to 
the same object ; as, 

Sugar is sweet. 
" white. 
" brittle, &c. 

The different sentences afterward contracted into one. 
Forming sentences in which the same quality is ascribed to 
different objects ; as, 

Glass is brittle. 

Chalk is brittle. 

Coal is brittle, &c. 

The different sentences contracted into one. 



THE END. 




20* 



IN PRESS. 



MODEL LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 



BY 



E. A. SHELDOE", 

SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, OSWEGO, N. T. AUTHOR OF '.' MANUAL OF 
ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION." ETC. 



The design of this work is to furnish a complete reference-book for Teachers, 
in giving " Object Lessons." It contains a number of detailed Lessons in 
each grade, together with a large list of Objects, with the names of such qual- 
ities as are suitable to be developed in each Lesson, and such information 
on the various Objects referred to as will be of assistance to the Teacher. It 
presents a complete graduated course of Developing Exercises and Instruction 
in Object Lessons, and is designed as a companion volume to " Elementary 
Instruction," &c, &c. 

CHARLES SCRIBNER, 

124 GRAND STREET, 

New York. 



GUYOT'S 

WALL MAPS FOR SCHOOLS, 

BY 

PROF. ARNOLD GUYOT. 



The large series, averaging 5x6 feet, contains the following; 

1 Map of the HEMISPHERES. 

1 " " WORLD (Mercator's Projection). 

1 " EUROPE. 

1 « ASIA. 

1 " AFRICA. 

1 " NORTH AMERICA. 

1 " . SOUTH AMERICA. 

1 " OCEANIA. 

1 " CENTRAL EUROPE. 

1 « of the UNITED STATES. 

1 « of the ROMAN EMPIRE. 

1 " ANCIENT GREECE. 

These Maps will be colored, either physically, politically, 
or physically and politically together, as ordered, and hand- 
somely mounted on rollers. 

ISiTAny Map will be sold separately. 

CHARLES SCRIBNER, 

124 Gkand Street, New York. 
^£W Agents "Wanted. 



GUYOT'S 

WALL MAPS FOR SCHOOLS, 



PROF. ARNOLD GTJYOT. 



The smaller series, averaging 3 x4 feet, contains the following : 
1 Map of the HEMISPHERES. 



1 < 


< EUROPE. 


1 < 


{ ASIA. 


1 « 


AFRICA. 


1 ' 


' NORTH AMERICA. 


1 ' 


< SOUTH AMERICA. 


1 < 


< OCEANIA. 


1 * 


< UNITED STATES (large). 



These Maps are handsomely colored, and each set in 
portfolio. 
Dgir'Aiiy Map will be sold separately. 

CHAELES SOKIBKEK, 

124 Gkand Street, New York. 



G-UYQT'S 

MAP DRAWING CARDS, 

DEAWN BY E. SANDOZ, UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 

PROF. ARNOLD GUYOT, 

PRICE, 33 CENTS PER SET. 



The complete set (in portfolio) contains : 
1 Map of the HEMISPHERES. 



1 


C< 


EUROPE. 


1 


Ci 


ASIA. 


1 


C( 


AFRICA. 


1 


u 


NORTH AMERICA. 


1 


u 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


1 


(( 


OCEANIA. 


1 


a 


UNITED STATES (double size). 



These "Map Drawing Cards" are printed on a fine 
quality of paper, and present merely the latitudes and 
longitudes. 

For the complete set, without portfolios, 32 cents. 

For any single Map of the set, 50 cents per dozen. 

CHARLES SCRIBNER, 

124 Grand Street, New York. 



^^Samples sent by mail, prepaid, on receipt of 25 cents. 



